L.C 


l 


GIFT  OF 
R.   Dalngerfield 


V 


INTRODUCTION 


TO  THE 


LANGUAGE. 


BEING 


A  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  WITH  EXERCISES. 


ALPHONSE  N.  VAN  DAELL, 


PROFESSOR   IN  THE  MASSACHUSETTS   INSTITUTE   OF  TECHNOLOGY,   LATE  DIRECTOR 

OF  MODERN   LANGUAGES   IN  THE   BOSTON   PUBLIC   HIGH 

AND  LATIN   SCHOOLS. 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

GINN  &  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS. 
1893. 


i  , >  ii  <  >x S I-:  ,^ .  .^rAN'  BlELL. 


ALL  RIGHTS  KESERVED. 


(Cite  atftenaeum 

GINN    &    COMPANY,   BOSTON,   U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


ALTHOUGH  the  number  of  French  Grammars  is  large, 
few  persons  will  deny  that  great  improvements  on  the  exist- 
ing school  books  are  possible  and  consequently  desirable. 

It  has  seemed  to  me  that  most  practical  methods  do  not 
give  to  the  student  even  a  general  survey  of  grammatical 
questions.  I  do  not  believe  that  a  complete  statement  of 
such  questions  is  possible  or  desirable  in  a  school  book ; 
but  the  multiplicity  of  rules  divided  among  separate  lessons 
often  produces  the  impression  that  any  one  of  several 
alternatives  may  be  used  according  to  the  will  of  some 
undefmable  power  embodied  in  a  grammarian.  Or  else,  if 
one  is  allowed  the  use  of  a  German  expression  which 
renders  the  thought  very  accurately,  the  student  does  not 
see  the  forest  because  there  are  too  many  trees  in  his  way. 

I  have  given  several  years  of  thought  to  the  preparation 
of  the  book  which  I  now  offer  to  the  public.  I  can  assure 
my  colleagues  that  no  effort  has  been  spared  to  make,  it 
acceptable  to  them. 

No  doubt,  many  teachers  may  have  been  using  a  method 
similar  to  the  one  I  propose ;  my  ambition  is,  to  simplify 
their  task. 

The  first  part  is  composed  of  practical  lessons.  Each 
lesson  begins  with  a  few  French  sentences,  or  an  extract 
from  some  French  author,  on  which  the  ]esson  is  based. 
Then  follow  questions  in  French  to  be  answered  orally  or 
in  writing,  as  the  teacher  may  prefer.  I  should  advise 
both  methods.  The  questions  may  be  varied  and  multi- 
plied as  the  case  may  require. 

M44302 


IV  PliEFACE. 

Then  follow  grammatical  references  to  the  second  part, 
and  exercises  or  tasks  to  be  extended  or  reduced  ad  libitum. 
These  are  followed  by  two  sets  of  sentences  to  be  translated 
into  French.  Those  marked  a  are  simple  and  easy,  those 
marked  b  are  more  difficult,  and  may  be  reserved  for  a 
review.  And  finally  there  is  a  "motto,  a  sentence,  or  a 
stanza  to  be  memorized. 

This  plan  will  allow  to  a  considerable  extent  the  use  of 
French  in  the  class  room,  even  from  the  beginning.  I 
believe  that  the  oral  part  of  the  exercises  will  satisfy 
teachers  who  are  convinced  of  the  great  importance  of 
giving  their  pupils  some  knowledge  of  French  pronuncia- 
tion, of  imparting  to  them  the  faculty  of  understanding 
the  spoken  language,  and  of  speaking  themselves  as  much 
as  circumstances  will  permit.  That  good  results  are  thus 
obtained  is  a  matter  of  fact. 

If,  however,  some  teachers  should  decide,  for  reasons 
satisfactory  to  themselves,  that  they  ought  not  to  give  time 
to  oral  exercises,  both  questions  and  translations  can  be 
used  for  written  tasks. 

The  second  part  is  a  plain  exposition  of  what  I  consider 
to  be  the  essentials  of  French  Grammar  for  English-speak- 
ing students.  It  is  not  to  be  studied  by  itself,  but  pupils 
should  continually  refer  to  it  while  studying  the  first  part. 

I  have  not  attempted  the  impossible  task  of  rendering 
French  pronunciation  by  English  equivalents.  I  know  of 
but  two  satisfactory  ways  of  learning  to  pronounce.  If  one 
will  make  a  study  of  the  science  of  Phonetics,  he  can  arrive 
at  excellent  results  and  understand  an  accurate  representa- 
tion of  soimds  :  it  would  be  an  absurdity  to  attempt  any- 
thing of  the  kind  in  a  book  destined  for  the  mass  of  pupils. 
But  I  hope  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  most 
teachers  of  language  will  give  this  point  the  attention  which 
it  so  fully  deserves,  and  which  has  so  generally  been  refused. 


PREFACE.  V 

The  best  way  of  mastering  the  pronunciation  is  to  follow 
a  competent  teacher.  The  pupil  ought  not  to  be  left  to 
his  own  devices,  or  even  to  his  own  inferences.  Let  the 
teacher  read  the  lesson  first,  and  the  pupil  imitate  him. 

Eemarks  on  pronunciation,  and  some  practical  hints 
for  their  application  will  be  found  immediately  after  this 
preface.  They  are  meant  as  a  help  to  the  oral  lessons  of 
the  teacher. 

A  key  to  the  exercises  contained  in  this  volume  will 
soon  be  at  the  disposition  of  teachers  ;  and  a  Eeader  to 
accompany  the  grammar  will  shortly  follow. 

It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  express  my  thanks  to  the  kind 
friends  who  have  assisted  me  in  the  laborious  task  of  read- 
ing the  proofs,  and  have  helped  me  with  many  suggestions. 
I  may  here  name  Miss  M.  E.  Wisemann  ;  Messrs.  Capen, 
Freeborn,  and  Eollins,  of  the  Boston  Latin  School  ;  Lebon, 
of  the  English  High  School,  Boston ;  and  H.  L.  N.  Bernard, 
of  the  Mass.  Institute  of  Technology.  But  for  their  labors, 
this  work  would  have  been  more  imperfect  than  it  is. 

ALPHONSE  N".  VAN  DAELL. 
BOSTON,  May,  1893. 


HOW  THIS  BOOK  IS   TO   BE   USED. 


It  is  certain  that  every  true  teacher  has  his  own  method, 
I  mean  his  own  way  of  presenting  a  lesson  to  his  class. 
To  those  who  have  successfully  worked  out  the  problem, 
the  following  suggestions  are  offered  with  due  reserve ; 
they  should  be  accepted  as  far  only  as  they  can  be  made  to 
fit  into  the  general  plan  of  the  instructor. 

To  those  who  have  not  gained  much  experience  or  who 
are  not  satisfied  with  the  results  they  obtain,  I  present  a 
method  which  may  be  adopted  in  part,  or  in  its  entirety. 
All  I  can  say  is  that  it  is  one  which  I  have  followed,  and 
which  some  of  my  colleagues  have  found  practical  and  suc- 
cessful. 

Let  the  teacher  take  the  first  lesson  of  the  first  party 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  book,  read  slowly  the  French  text, 
sentence  by  sentence,  translate  it,  have  the  pupils  repeat  it, 
and  pronounce  it.  Then  the  French  questions  may  be 
used  orally,  they  may  be  varied  and  multiplied.  Let  then 
the  explanation  of  the  grammatical  difficulties  follow,  with 
references  to  the  chapters  of  the  second  part  in  which  the 
subject  is  treated ;  the  teacher  ought  to  explain  it  in  his 
own  way,  giving  his  own  illustrations.  He  is  also  the  best 
judge  of  the  how  much  in  grammar.  For  many  classes  the 
general  and  most  simple  rules  will  suffice,  for  others  more 
are  desirable ;  for  all  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the 
case  ought  to  precede  details. 

The  lesson  may  then  be  assigned  to  be  studied  indepen- 
dently by  the  pupils  ;  it  may  consist  of  written  answers  to 
the  French  questions,  which  may  have  been  answered 


Viil  BEFERENCE   BOOKS. 

orally  ;  of  the  learning  of  rules,  paradigms,  and  forms  ; 
of  the  translation  into  French  of  one  or  two  sets  of 
English  sentences ;  and  of  the  memorizing  of  a  French 
passage ;  one  of  more  or  less  length  has  been  added  for 
that  purpose  to  each  practical  lesson. 

Is  one  whole  chapter  to  be  taken  in  an  hour  ?  No  general 
answer  can  be  given  to  the  question.  I  should  use  two  or 
three  tours,  often  more,  for  going  over  the  ground  of  one 
chapter.  The  capacity  of  the  pupil,  and  the  developments 
of  the  teacher  vary  "ad  infinitum."  Let  each  one  decide 
what  he  can  do  well,  and  never  pass  that  measure. 

A  reader  or  a  French  book  ought  very  soon  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  the  method ;  let  the  pupils  read  much  ; 
accustom  them  to  reason  out  the  meaning  of  words,  in  a 
way  similar  to  the  one  in  which  they  reason  out  a  problem 
in  algebra,  and  gain  confidence  in  themselves  ;  keep  them 
from  guessing ;  and  they  will  soon  obtain  a  facility  which 
will  be  a  lasting  benefit,  since  it  will  open  to  them  the 
pleasant  fields  of  literature. 


BEFEKENCE   BOOKS. 

I  have  freely  used  the  following  works  : 

LITTRE.  —  Dictionnaire.  % 

DARMESTETER  ET  HATZFELD. — Dictionnaire  (as  far  as  published). 
MATZNER.  —  Franzb'sische  Grammatik. 
AYER.  —  Grammaire  compare  de  la  langue  franchise. 
CHASSANG.  — Nouvelle  Grammaire  franchise. 
CROUSLE.  —  Grammaire  de  la  langue  fra^aise. 
DUSSOUCHET.  —  Exercices. 

DA  COSTA. — Nouvelle  Me"thode  d'enseignement  de  la  grammaire 
franQaise. 

and  occasionally  also  some  of  the  school  books  published 
in  America. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGES 

Preface iii-v 

How  this  book  is  to  be  used vii,  viii 

Reference  books viii 

Table  of  Contents ix-xi 

Abbreviations  used  in  this  Grammar xiii,  xiv 

Practical  Remarks  on  FRENCH  PRONUNCIATION xv-xxvii 

PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR.     Lemons  preliminaires 1-6 

PART  FIRST:  Practical  exercises 7-76 

GRAMMAR.     PART  SECOND.     Preliminaries 1 

CHAPTER     I.     Parts  of  speech 2 

CHAPTER  II.     Nouns 2-4 

Gender 2 

Number 2-4 

CHAPTER  III.     Articles 4-9 

Definite  4-7 

Indefinite 7 

Partitive 8,  9 

CHAPTER  IV.     Adjectives 9-18 

Form  of  qualifying  adjectives 10-14 

Feminine 10-12 

Plural 12, 13 

Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative 13, 14 

Determinative  adjectives 14-18 

Numeral  adjectives  14, 15 

Possessive  adjectives 16 

Demonstrative  adjectives 16, 17 

Indefinite  adjectives  17, 18 

CHAPTER    V.     Pronouns , 19-36 

Personal 19-25 

Conjunctive  and  disjunctive 19-22 

Place 22,23 

Conjunctive  and  disjunctive  as  indirect  objects..  24, 25 


X  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Soi  (use  of) 25 

Possessive 26 

Demonstrative  26-28 

West  or  II  est 28 

Relative 29-31 

Interrogative 31-34 

Indefinite 34-36 

CHAPTER  VI      The  Verb 36-87 

Tenses 37,38 

General  observations 38,  39 

Auxiliaries 39-^2 

Regular  verbs : 42-50 

Primitive  tenses 43,44 

Model  verbs 44-48 

Remarks  on  the  first  conjugation 48,49 

"  "      second         " 49 

"  "      third  "          50 

Irregular  verbs 50-59 

Intransitive  verbs  with  ETRE 59 

Conjugation  of  reflexive  verbs 60 

"  "  impersonal  verbs 61 

Negative  forms 61-64 

Interrogative  forms , 64 

Use  of  avoir  and  etre 64-66 

SYNTAX  of  the  verb 66-87 

Use  of  tenses  in  the  INDICATIVE  MODE  67-74 

Present  indicative 67, 68 

Imperfect 68-70 

Past  definite  70-72 

Past  indefinite  72 

Pluperfect 73 

Past  Anterior 73 

Future  simple 73 

Future  Anterior 73 

CONDITIONAL  MODE 74,75 

SUBJUNCTIVE 75-79 

Concordance  of  tenses  ^ 79,  80 

Use  of  the  INFINITIVE 81-85 

Use  of  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  85,86 

Use  of  the  PASSIVE  VOICE 86, 87 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGES 

CHAPTER    VII.     Participles 87-91 

Present  participle 87,  88 

Past  participle 88-91 

CHAPTER  VIII.     Adverbs 91-94 

Affirmatives  and  Negatives 91-92 

Ne  in  sentences  that  are  not  negative 92 

Ne  =  lest,  or  without  English  equivalent....  93 

Other  negatives 93,  94 

CHAPTER      IX.     Prepositions 94-103 

DE 94-97 

A 97-100 

A,    EN,    DANS 100,101 

PAR 102,103 

POUR 103 

AVANT,  APRES  103 

DEVANT,    DERRIERE 103 

CHAPTER        X.     Conjunctions 104 

CHAPTER      XL     Interjections 104,105 

CHAPTER    XII.     General   remarks   on    the   history   of    the 

French  language 105-109 

Alphabetical  table  of  Irregular  verbs 110-113 

Alphabetical  list  of  Infinitive  Constructions,  without  pre- 
position, or  with  ct  and  de  after  verbs 113-117 

French-English  Vocabulary 119-210 

English-French  Vocabulary 211-229 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  THIS  GRAMMAR. 


a Active actif. 

adj Adjective adjectif. 

adv. Adverb adverbe. 

off. Affirmative affirmatif. 

ant Anterior anterieur. 

art. Article  article. 

b.  s. Bad  sense mauvaise  part. 

chron Chronology  chronologic. 

comp. Comparative  comparatif. 

cond.... Conditional conditionnel. 

conj Conjunction conjonction. 

def... Definite defini. 

dem. Demonstrative demonstratif. 

f.  or  fern Feminine feminin. 

fam Familiar familier. 

fig Figurative  au  figure. 

fut Future futur. 

gard Gardening jardinage. 

gram Grammar grammaire. 

her Heraldry blason. 

hunt. Hunting chasse. 

imp Imperfect imparfait. 

imper. Impersonal impersonnel. 

ind Indicative indicatif. 

indef. Indefinite indefini. 

inf. Infinitive  infinitif. 

int Interjection interjection. 

inter. Interrogative interrogatif. 

irr. Irregular irrtyulier. 

jur Jurisprudence jurisprudence. 

I.  u Little  used peu  usite. 

m.  and  masc. Masculine masculin. 

mus Music  musique. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

myth Mythology mythologie. 

n. Noun nom. 

n.  (with  verbs) Neuter neutre. 

nav Navy marine. 

neg Negative negatif. 

p Page  page. 

paint. Painting peinture. 

part Participle participe. 

per Personal personnel. 

perf. Perfect parfait. 

plu Plural pluriel 

pluperf. Pluperfect plus-que-parfait. 

pop. Popular populaire. 

prep Preposition proposition. 

pres Present present. 

pro Pronoun pronom. 

prov Proverbially proverbialement. 

r. Reflexive  reflechi. 

reg. Regular regulier. 

subj Subjunctive subjonctif. 

v Verb verbe. 


PRACTICAL   REMARKS 


FRENCH   PRONUNCIATION.1 


The  following  remarks  are  not  meant  to  replace  a  treatise 
on  pronunciation.  We  refer  teachers  to  the  following 
works,  which  they  may  find  helpful : 

ADRIEN  FELINE. — Dictionnaire  de  la  prononciation. 

M.  A.  LESAINT. — Trait6  complet  de  la  prononciation  franQaise  dans 
la  seconde  moiti£  du  XIXe  si&cle. 

WILHELM  VIETOR.  —  Elemente  der  Phonetik  und  Orthoepie  des 
Deutschen,  Englischen  und  Franzosischen. 

PAUL  PASSY.  —  Les  sons  du  fran§ais.     TroisiSme  Edition.     1892. 

PAUL  PASSY.  — Le  frangais  parl£. 

I. 
DIVISION   OF    SYLLABLES.2 

Here  lies,  perhaps,  the  greatest  difficulty  with  which  the 
teacher  meets  in  an  English-speaking  country.  I  have 
always  found  that  when  the  division  of  words  into  syllables 
was  mastered,  a  correct  pronunciation  became  comparatively 
an  easy  matter. 

The  pronounced  syllable  in  French  ends,  as  a  rule,  with 
a  vowel  sound,  the  vowel  being  the  syllable  unit.  Hence 
the  following  division :  a  ma  |  bi  |  li  |  te.  A  most  im- 
portant point  to  notice  is  that  a  nasal  is  a  vowel  sound  re- 
presented by  several  letters,  vowels  or  consonants.  An, 

1  For  the  alphabet,  see  Part  II.  page  1. 

2  The  division  to  which  we  refer  is  not  the  written  division,  but  the  one 
that  is  observed  in  pronunciation. 


XVI  REMARKS    ON    PRONUNCIATION. 

am,  ant,  en,  em,  etc.,  are  nothing  but  a  way  of  representing 
a  nasal  a.  One,  ont,  om,  etc.,  are  a  nasal  o.  Done,1  dont, 
dom,  don,  represent  the  same  sound ;  nom  and  non  have 
exactly  the  same  pronunciation.  Nasals  are  found  at 
the  end  of  syllables,  but  the  consonants  have  not  the 
slightest  influence  on  their  pronunciation.  Divide  then  : 

X 

am  |  bi  |  ti  \  on;     con  |  tra  |  cti  |  on;     re     mon  |  ter. 

R  and  I,  being  semi-vowels,  are  often  sounded  at  the  end 
of  a  syllable ;  so  are  c  (k),  and  s,  although  the  last  letter 
has  been  elided  at  the  end  of  syllables  in  many  French 
words,  and  its  former  place  marked  by  an  accent.  Ex.: 
cal  me  ;  nor  |  mal ;  a  |  ffec  |  te  ;  res  te ;  e  \  co  |  le 
(from  escole);  be  te  (from  beste);  etre  (from  estre). 

PRACTICAL  EULE. — Pronounce  words  syllable  by  sylla- 
ble, giving  a  slight  stress,  if  any,  to  the  last,2  if  its  vowel  is 
not  an  unaccented  e  ;  in  that  case,  the  stress  falls  on  the  pre- 
ceding vowel.  —  Consonants  belong  to  the  following  vowel, 
that  is,  they  must  be  thrown  upon  it,  not  attached  to  the 
preceding,  as  is  often  done  in  English. — If  does  not 

count ;    in  this   division  it   is  treated  as   if   it  were    not 

k 
written.     Divide  for  pronunciation :  i  |  na  \  ccou  |  tit  |  me; 

(no  nasal) 
d       x  ^ 

i  |  nliGi     bi  |  le;     but  im  |  per  |  fe  \  cti     on. 

(no  nasal) 

II. 

BLENDING   OF   WORDS. 

Words  are  often  blended  in  French,  that  is,  pronounced 
as  if  they  were  one,  when  there  is  an  intimate  connection 
between  them,  as  between  a  noun  and  its  adjective.  The 

1  In  done  the  final  c  (k)  is  occasionally  sounded. 

2  It  is  more  important  not  to  lay  any  stress  on  preceding  syllables,  than 
to  give  stress  to  the  last.     This  stress  is  slight  in  comparison  with  the 
English  stress,  and  often  disappears  altogether. 


ON    THE    VALUE    OF    LETTERS.  XV11 

slightest  separation,  whether  marked  by  a  comma  or  not,  a 
resultant  harshness,  or  an  unpleasant  repetition  of  sound, 
a  pause,  even  when  accidental,  are  sufficient  reasons  for 
omitting  the  blending. 

The  blending  is  frequent  in  poetry  and  in  solemn, 
sustained  speech ;  frequent  blendings,  except  between 
nouns  and  their  adjectives,  and  words  intimately  related 
to  each  other,  are  considered  pedantic  in  common  conver- 
sation. 

The  blending  consists  in  throwing  the  last  consonant  of 
one  word  upon  the  initial  vowel  of  the  next  one.  The 
value  of  the  consonants  is  then  modified  in  this  way : 
c  =  k,  d  •=.  t,  g  =  k,  s  =  z,  and  x  =  z.  Ex. :  Nous  avons 
des  livres  a  la  maison,  'We  have  books  at  home/  —  is  pro- 
nounced nou,  za,  von,  de,  li,  vreu,  za,  la,  me,  zon. 

Notice  that  an  apostrophe  is  a  sign  of  the  blending  of 
two  syllables  into  one,  and  not  a  separation,  as  beginners 
often  seem  to  consider  it.  Ex:  IShomme,  'the  man/ — is 
pronounced  in  one  syllable  lorn'. 

(no  nasal) 

III. 
ON   THE   VALUE    OF   LETTERS.1 

A 

A  has  always  the  open  sound  called  Italian  a ;  it  may  be 
either  long  or  short,  but  it  never  degenerates  into  the 
English  sounds  heard  in  hate,  awning  or  what. 

Aa  is  long. 

Ai  has  three  sounds  (besides  ain,  aim,  which  are  nasal) : 

1.  That  of  E  mute  in  faisant,  nous  faisons,  je  faisais 
(and  other  persons  of  the  imp.  ind.),  faisons ;  and  in 

1  The  following  remarks  are  those  only  which  have  seemed  most  useful 
for  beginners.  Consult  books  cited  on  page  xv.  Every  teacher  should 
have  a  Lesaint  at  hand. 


XV111  REMARKS   ON  PRONUNCIATION. 

the    corresponding    forms    of    the    compounds    of   faire; 
also  in  the  corresponding  syllables  of   nouns  and  adjec- 

e  e 

tives  derived  from  these  verbs.     Ex.:  Bienfaisance,  infai- 
sable. 

2.  Of  E  in  verb  endings.     Ex. :  J'ai,  je  parlerai,  je  par- 
lai;  also  in  gai,  and  in  the  forms  je  sais,  tu  sais,  il  salt 
from  savoir. 

3.  Of  E.    a)    When  final  in  nouns  and  adjectives.     Ex.: 
Balai,  vrai.     o)    In  words  ending  in  ais,  ait,  aie,  aies,  aient, 
air,  aix.     Ex. :  J'avais,  je  parlerais,  Us  parlaient,  que  faie, 
chair,  paix.     c)    In  the  body  of  words.     Ex.:    Chaise,  se- 
maine. 

Au,  eau,  have  the  sound  of  French  o.  Ex. :  Audace,  cha- 
peau. 

E. 

Unaccented  e  can  never  begin  a  syllable.  Although  it 
is  called  e  mute  (e  muet),  it  is  often  heard  in  pronunciation 
as  a  softened  French  eu. 

It  is  really  mute  :  1.  When  it  can  be  passed  over  without 
harshness  by  joining  the  preceding  consonant  to  the  fore- 
going vowel.  (This  vowel  may  belong  to  the  preceding 
word.)  Ex. :  Je  reviens,  pronounce  Jeur1  vi  \  in ;  acheter, 

(nasal) 

pronounce  ach'  \  te  ;  mademoiselle,  pronounce  mad'     moa  \ 
zel';     Genevieve,  pronounce  jeun1     m     e  \  ve ;    de  ce  que  je 
desire,  pronounce  deus'  \  keuf  \  de  \  zir.      Two  unaccented 
e's  cannot  appear  in  successive  syllables  at  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  see  second  part,  page  49?  §  3. 

2.  At  the  end  of  words  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
where  it  gives  a  marked  force  to  the  preceding  consonant, 
which  might  otherwise  be  mute.  Ex. :  Ouvert,  pronounce 
ou  |  ver1;  ouverte,  pronounce  ou  |  ver  |  t';  fin,  fine,  pro- 
nounce fi  |  n'.  (nasal) 

(French  i) 


ON    THE    VALUE    OF    LETTERS.  XIX 

3.  At  the  end  of  any  syllable  when  it  is  preceded  by  a 
vowel.  Ex. :  Armee,  pronounce  ar  me ;  devouement,  pro- 
nounce de  |  vou  |  man. 

(nasal) 

Unaccented  e  is  pronounced  like  a  very  slight  French  eu. 
1.  In  monosyllables  like  je,  me,  te,  se,  ne,  que,  de,  when 
they  are  followed  by  a  consonant.  Ex. :  II  me  parle,  pro- 
nounce il  |  meu  |  parl1. 

2.  In  polysyllables,  unless  the  preceding  consonant  can 
be  pronounced  with  the  foregoing  vowel  (see  above).     Ex.: 
Demoiselle    (at    the    beginning    of    a    clause),    pronounce 
deu  |  mo  a  \  zel'.     Notice  that  the  consonants  ch,  m,  p  do 
not  allow  this  elision ;  le  menuisier,  pronounce  leu  \  meu  \ 
nui  |  zie  ;    peser,  pronounce  peu  |  %e. 

3.  In  words  beginning  with  re  followed  by   h.      Ex. : 
Rehacher,  pronounce  reu  |  a     che. 

4.  When  it  is  placed  between  the  same  consonant  re- 
peated.    Ex.:    Fermement,  pronounce  fer  \  meu  |  man;    il 

(nasal) 

vient  de  Dijon,  pronounce  il  |  vi  |  in  |  deu  |  Di  |  jon. 

(nasal)  (nasal) 

E. 

E  acute  (e  accent  aigu)  has  always  a  closed  sound.  Its 
equivalents  are  :  1.  Ai  (see  above).  2.  Final  er  except  in 
foreign  words  and  some  French  words  of  which  the  more 
usual  are :  amer,  avant-hier,  cancer,  cher,  cuiller,  enfer, 
fer,  fier  (adj.),  hier,  hiver,  magister,  mer,  outremer,  Pater, 
revolver;  in  all  these,  the  final  syllable  is  pronounced 
er'  with  a  sonorous  r.  3.  Final  ez  except  in  a  few 
proper  names.  4.  Et  conjunction.  5.  Ers  in  the  end- 
ing iers;  except  tiers  (-J-)  and  TJiiers  which  are  pro- 
nounced ti  |  er'.  6.  Ed,  eds  in  the  endings  ied,  ieds. 
Ex.  :  Pied,  pronounce  pi  \  e ;  je  m'assieds,  pronounce 
jeu  I  ma  I  si  I  e. 


XX  REMARKS    OX    PRONUNCIATION. 

E  or  E. 

E  grave  (e  accent  grave)  and  e  circumflex  (  e  accent  cir- 
conftexe)  have  always  an  open  sound. 

Its  equivalents  are  :  1.  Ais,  ait,  aient  (see  above). 
2.  Unaccented  e  when  followed  by  x  or  two  consonants, 
excepting  femme,  which  is  pronounced /&  |  m1.  3.  In  the 
monosyllables  ces,  des,  mes,  tes,  ses,  tu  es,  il  est.  (Notice  the 
difference  between  et  '  and '  •=  e,  and  est  '  is ?  =  e.  4.  Ei 
(except  the  nasals  ein,  elm).  5.  El,  et  or  ets  final  of  nouns 
and  adjectives.  6.  In  the  endings  eil  and  eille  (il  or  ille 
are  liquid).  Ex.:  Abeitle,  pronounce  a  \  be  |  ?/'. 

Eu  (or  (Eu). 

Eu  may  have  three  sounds. 

1.  It  is  open  :  a)    When  it  is  followed  in  the  same  sylla- 
ble by  sonorous  /,  I,  or  r.     Ex. :  seul,  veuf,  peur.     V)    In  the 
following  endings  :  euble,  eugle,  eule,  eune  (without  accent), 
euple,  cure,  euve,  euil,  euille.     Ex.:  Peuple. 

2.  It  is  closed :  a)    At  the  beginning  of  a  word  forming 
a   syllable    by    itself.      Ex. :    Europe.      Exception :    Eure. 
li)    When  it  is   followed  in  the   same   syllable  by  one  or 
several  mute  consonants.     Ex. :  Je  peux.     c)    In  the  body 
of  the  words,  when  it  ends  the  syllable.     Ex.:   Peureux. 

d)  At  the   end  of  words ;    or    in  the   final  syllable   eue. 

e)  When  the  u  has  a  circumflex  accent.     Ex. :  Jeune. 

3.  It  is  pronounced  like  French  u :    a)    In  all  persons 
and  tenses  of  avoir.     Ex. :  Eu,  que  feus,  which  sound  u  ; 
keu  |  ju.      b)     In  the   six  words  chargeure,  egrugeure,  ga- 
geure,  laceure,  mangeure  and  vergeure. 

I. 

I,  when  not  nasal,  has  only  one  sound,  the  one  occurring 
in  a  |  mi.  I  may  be  long  or  short ;  it  is  always  long  in 
the  ending  ie. 


ON  THE  VALUE  OF  LETTEKS.         xxi 

0. 

O  is  closed  when  it  has  a  circumflex  accent,  and  also  : 

1.  When  it  is  followed  in.  the  same   syllable  by  one  or 
several    mute    consonants,    not   m    or   n,    like    nos,    sirop. 

2.  When  it  is  followed  by  an  s  (sounded  z)  and  a  vowel. 
Ex.:    Je  suppose,   arroser.      3.    In    most  words   ending  in 
ome  or  one.     4.    At  the  end  of  words. 

0  is  open :  1.    When  it  is  followed  in  the  same  syllable 
by   one    or    more    pronounced    consonants.       Ex.:    Paste 

2.  When  it  is  followed  by  a  mute  syllable  (not  ome  or  one). 

3.  When  it  is  followed  by  a  double  consonant  and  e  mute, 
or  followed  by  ment.     Ex. :  Je  donne,  bonnement. 

(E. 

(Eil   is    pronounced    eu  \  ye;     its    compounds    are   pro- 

(open) 

nounced  accordingly. 
For  ceu,  see  eu. 

Oi. 

01  is  pronounced  oa.     In  roide,  roideur,  roidir,  and  har- 
nois  it  has  the  sound  e. 

Ou. 

has  but  one  sound  as  in  clou,  ou. 

U, 

To  pronounce  u,  pronounce  first  a  French  i,  narrow  the 
lips  to  pronounce  o,  then  bring  them  out  as  far  as  possible, 
leaving  only  a  very  small  aperture  exactly  in  the  middle 
—  i,  o,  u.  The  letter  has  but  one  sound. 

Ue. 

Ue  before  il  has  the  sound  of  eu  open.  Ex.:  Cueillir, 
pronounce  keu  yir. 

(open) 


XX11  REMARKS    ON   P11ONUNCIATIOH. 

Y. 

Y  is  equivalent  to  a  simple  i  :  1.  At  the  beginning  or 
at  the  end  of  words.  Ex. :  Yeux  pronounce  i  \  eu  ;  Sully, 

(closed) 

pronounce  su  \  II.  2.  In  the  body  of  the  words  after  a 
consonant.  Ex.:  Synonyme,  hydre. 

It  is  generally  equivalent  to  a  double  i  in  the  body 
of  words  after  a  vowel.  Ex.:  Pays,  pronounce  pai  \  i; 
bruyere,  pronounce  brui  ier*. 

NASAL    SOUNDS. 

There  are  four  nasals  produced  by  a  combination  of  one 
or  several  vowels  with  the  consonants  m  or  n ;  they  may 
be  followed  by  one  or  two  more  consonants  which  are 
always  silent  if  they  belong  to  the  same  syllable. 

If  m  or  n  are  followed  by  a  vowel,  or  an  li  mute  pre- 
ceding a  vowel,  the  consonant  belongs,  of  course,  to  the 
following  vowel  and  there  is  no  nasal  sound.  Ex. :  Impos- 
sible has  a  nasal  sound  ;  inhabile  and  amer  have  none. 
(See  the  division  of  words  into  syllables.) 

An  (Open  Nasal  of  'a'). 

The  various  combinations  by  which  this  nasal  may  be 
represented  are  aen,  am,  an,  ean,  aon,  em,1  en.2. 

1  Em  =  a,  in  femme,  femmelette,  and  in  all  adverbs  when  followed  by 
the  ending  merit.    Ex. :  Ardemment,  pronounce  ar  \  da  \  man ;    indemni- 

(nasal) 

ser  and  indemnite  are  pronounced  in  \  da  \  mni  \  ze  and  in  \  da  \  mni  \  te. 

(nasal)  (nasal) 

—  Em  =  e,  in  dilemme,  gemme,  and  lemme. — Em  =  in,  in  the  body  of 

(nasal) 

foreign  words.    Ex.:  Wurtemberg,  pronounce  Vur  \  tin  \  ber'. —  Em  =  erne 

(nasal) 

(short),  at  the  end  of  foreign  words,  and,  when  followed  by  n,  in  their 
body.  Ex. :  Lemnos,  pronounce  Leme  \  noss' ;  Jerusalem,  pronounce 
Je  |  ru  |  za  \  leme ;  indemne  is  pronounced  in  \  de  \  mne. 

(nasal) 

2  fin  —  a,  in  hennir,  hennissement,  nenni,  solennel,  solennite,  solennel- 
lement,  solenniser,  and  in  the  compounds  of  Rouen,  like  rouennais. — 


CONSONANTS.  XX111 

BEMARK.  —  ent,  ending  of  the  third  person  plural,  is 
always  mute.  Ex.:  Us  parlent  is  pronounced  il  |  par  |  V. 

Emm  is  nasal  (an),  even  when  followed  by  a  vowel,  in 
all  French  words  beginning  with  emm  or  remm,  excepting: 
Emma,  Emmanuel,  and  a  few  scientific  words  ;  these  are 
pronounced  Emm1  |  ma,  etc. 

Un  (Medium;  Nasal  of  'e?/'). 
This  sound  is  represented  by  eun,  um  or  un. 

On  (Closed  Nasal  of  V) 
This  sound  may  be  represented  by  eon,  om  and  on. 

In  (Nasal  of  V). 

This  sound  may  be  represented  by  aim,  ain,  eim,  ein,  em 
(see  note  1,  page  xxii),  en  (see  note  2,  pages  xxii  and  xxiii), 
im,  in,  ym,  in.1 

CONSONANTS. 

Nothing  need  be  said  about  the  normal  sounds  of  con- 
sonants ;  they  present  no  special  difficulties  to  English- 
speaking  students.  Here  are  the  more  notable  variations  : 

C. 

C  has  the  sound  of  s  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  when  it  has  a 
cedilla  ($) ;  in  all  other  cases  it  has  the  hard  sound  of  k. 

En  =  e,  in  all  words  in  which  n  is  doubled  and  followed  by  a  vowel. 
Ex. :  La  mienne.  Also  before  an  h  mute.  Ex. :  Fahrenheit,  pronounce 
Fa  |  re  \  nett'.  Except  in  the  verb  ennoblir,  in  ennui,  and  its  compounds, 
in  which  the  sound  is  nasal.  —  En  =  in :  1.  Nasal  at  the  beginning  and 
in  the  body  of  foreign  words.  Ex. :  Bengali.  2.  In  all  the  parts  of  venir, 
tenir,  and  their  compounds,  when  ien  is  not  followed  by  another  n.  3.  At 
the  end  of  common  and  proper  nouns,  and  adjectives,  when  they  end 
in  ien.  Ex. :  Chien,  mien.  4.  In  the  ending  oyen.  Ex. :  Citoyen.  — 
En  =  ene  (short),  at  the  end  of  foreign  words  not  ending  either  in  ien  or 
een.  Ex. :  Amen,  Beethoven. 

1  The  ending  oin  is  simply  an  o  followed  by  the  nasal  in.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  blend  the  two  sounds. 


XXIV  REMARKS    ON    PRONUNCIATION. 

C  sounds  like  hard  g  in  second  (pronounce  seu  \  gon  )  and 

(nasal) 

its  compounds. 

ch. 

Ch  has  the  sound  of  the  English  sh.  However,  in  words 
derived  from  the  Greek,  the  Hebrew,  or  the  Italian  it  has 
the  sound  of  k.  Ex. :  Archange,  pronounce  ar  |  kan  |  f; 
Achab,  A  \  kab';  Michel  Ange,  pronounce  ml  \  ke  Ian  \  f. 
But  in  words  beginning  with  archi,  the  sound  is  sh.  Ex. 
Architecte,  pronounce  ar  |  sh  i  |  te  kt'. 

(English) 

G. 

G  has  its  soft  sound  before  e,  i,  and  y ;  in  all  other  cases 
it  is  hard. 

Gn. 

Gn  is  hard  at  the  beginning  of  words,  in  the  words  stag- 
nant, stagnation,  igne,  magnolia,  inexpugnable,  and  in  about 
fifty  other  words  less  usual.  Otherwise  it  has  the  soft 
sound  of  n  followed  by  a  y.  Ex.:  Regnera,  pronounce 
re  |  nyeu  ra. 

H. 

The  letter  has  no  sound  in  French.1  A  distinction 
between  the  common  h  (Ji  muette)  and  aspirate  h 2  (Ji  aspiree) 
is  necessary,  because  the  former  is  treated  as  if  it  were  not 
written ;  the  latter  is  marked  by  a  pause,  a  total  separation 
from  the  letters  following. 

The  more  usual  words  in  which  aspirate  li  occurs  are  : 
Habler,  hache,  hazard,  haie,  haillon,  Jiaine,  hair,  haler,  hdler, 
haleter,  halle,  halte,  hamac,  hameau,  hanche,  hangar,  han- 
neton,  hanter,  liapper,  harangue,  harasser,  harceler,  hordes, 

1  Some  Frenchmen  occasionally  aspirate  the  h  in  order  to  give  a  strong 
emphasis  to  certain  words.    Ex. :  Je  hais  cet  ennemi  de  I'etat. 

2  In  the  vocabulary  the  sign  t  precedes  an  aspirate  h. 


CONSONANTS.  XXV 

hardi,  hareng,  hargneux,  haricot,  harnais,  harpe,  hasard, 
hate,  haut,  le  Havre. — Hennir,  Henri  *  heraut,  herisser, 
heros?  hetre,  heurter. —  Hibou,  hideux,  hierarchie,  kisser.— 
Hobereau,  hocher,  Hollande,  homard,  Hongrie,  honte,  hoquet, 
horde,  horion,  hotte,  houblon,  houille,  houle,  housse,  houx. — 
Huer,  huche,  huguenot,  hune,  huppe,  hure,  hurler,  hussard, 
hutte. 

As  a  rule,  the  compounds  have  also  the  aspirate  h.    Huit 
has  an  aspirate  h,  except  after  another  number.    Ex. :  Le  \ 
huit  (separate) ;  but  in  dix-huit,  pronounce  di  \  zui  \  t1. 

L. 

Besides  its  usual  sound,  I  has  a  liquid  sound  like  a 
strongly  marked  y. 

This  happens  :  1.  In  the  endings  ail,  eil,  euil,  ceil,  and 
ouil.  Ex.:  Travail,  rail,  oeil.  2.  Whenever  ai,  ei,  eui,  cei, 
and  oui,  are  followed  by  II.  Ex. :  Marseille,  Versailles,  tra- 
vailler.  3.  In  the  ending  ille,  or  in  the  body  of  the  word, 
when  i  is  followed  by  II.  Ex. :  Famille,  fille,  billet,  juillet. 
4.  In  the  following  words,  and  their  compounds  :  gril,  peril, 
avril,  babil,  gresil,  gentilhomme  (not  in  the  plural  gentils- 
hommes,  which  is  pronounced  .gen  \  ti  \  zom'),  gentillesse. 

NOTICE.  —  a)  That  I  is  never  liquid  in  the  first  syllable 
of  the  word,  nor  after  a  y.  Ex.:  Illusion,  idylle,  sibylle. 
b)  That  in  following  words  and  their  compounds  I  has 
its  usual  sound  (not  liquid).  Ex.:  Ville,  village,  Seville, 
tranquille,  osciller,  vaciller,  distiller,  scintiller,  pupille,  codi- 
cille,  pusillanime,  imbecillite,  mille,  millier,  million,  Cyrille, 
Aehille.  c)  II  is  not  liquid  in  the  body  of  words  when  it 
precedes  a  vowel.  So,  words  like  milieu,  filial  must  be 
pronounced  with  the  usual  I  sound. 

1  In  Henriette  and  Henriot,  h  is  mute. 

2  In  the  derivatives  of  faros,  h  is  jnute,-~ifl  heroine,  herolsme, 
for  example, 


XXVI        REMARKS  ON  PRONUNCIATION. 

Q- 

Q  has  the  k  sound  ;  qu  is  generally  an  exact  equivalent. 
However,  before  a  or  an,  qu  is  pronounced  like  the  French 
kou.  Ex.  :  Quadratique,  pronounce  koua  dra  tik.  And 
before  a  certain  number  of  words,  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
French  ku.  Ex.:  Equilateral,  equestre. 


This  letter  has  a  slight  trill  in  French,  and  is  much 
more  distinct  than  in  English.  For  the  endings  er,  see 
E  above. 

Notice  the  pronunciation  of  Monsieur  and  Messieurs, 
where  r  is  silent  ;  sound  Meu  j  ssi  |  eu  and  Me  \  ssi  |  eu. 

S. 

S  has  the  sound  of  z  between  two  vowels.  Notice  that 
h  mute  is  treated  as  if  it  were  not  written,  and  so  in  des- 
habiller  s  is  pronounced  like  z,  de  \  za  \  bi  \  ye.  But  in 
observer,  s  keeps  its  regular  sound,  although  it  is  sounded 
differently  in  the  corresponding  English  word.  Transitif, 
pronounce  tran  \  zi  \  tif,  because  a  nasal  is  a  vowel. 

(nasal) 

However,  s  keeps  its  regular  sound  in  compound  words, 
even  when  it  is  placed  between  two  vowels  at  the  begin- 
ning of  one  of  the  words.  Ex.:  Vraisemblable,  parasol; 
pronounce  as  if  the  component  words  were  distinct. 

S  is  silent  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  in  many  proper  nouns. 

Ex.:    Duguesclin,  pronounce  Du  \  gue  |  din.      Vosges,  pro- 

(nasal) 

nounce  Vo  \  f.     So  is  equivalent  to  s,  and  sck  to  the  French 
soft  ch. 

T. 

T  takes  the  sound  of  s  (not  English  sJi).  1.  In  the 
endings  tial,  tiel,  tieux.  Ex.:  Partial,  pronounce  par  | 


SPECIAL    REMARKS.  XXV11 

si  |  al.  Exception :  Bestial.  2.  In  nouns  ending  in  tion 
(not  in  verbs  in  tions)  and  their  compounds.  Ex. :  Nation. 
Exceptions  :  Question,  digestion,  congestion,  suggestion,  and 
their  compounds,  in  which  the  t  has  its  natural  sound. 
3.  In  the  following  words  :  argutie,  aristocratie,  autocratie, 
Beotie,  bureaucratic,  calvitie,  Croatie,  Dalmatie,  democratic, 
diplomatie,  Galatie,  Helvetie,  imperitie,  ineptie,  inertie, 
minutie,  patience,  satiete,  suprematie,  theocratic  and  their 
compounds.  Compounds  ending  in  tique  are,  however, 
pronounced  with  the  natural  t  sound. 
Th  is  always  an  exact  equivalent  of  t. 

W. 

W  is  generally  pronounced  like  v.  In  a  few  words 
derived  from  the  English,  initial  w  is  pronounced  like  a 
French  ou.  Ex.:  Whist,  pronounce  ou  \  ist'. 

X. 

X  is  generally  pronounced  like  ks.  But  in  initial  x  or  hr 
initial  ex,  the  sound  becomes  gz.  Ex. :  Exalter,  pronounce 
e  |  gzal  \  te.  Xerxes,  pronounce  Gzer  \  sess1. 

In  six,  dix,  Beatrix,  Cadix,  Aix,  Bruxelles,  and  Auxerre, 
the  letter  x  is  pronounced  like  s.  In  deuxieme,  sixieme, 
sixain,  sixaine,  dixieme,  it  has  the  sound  of  z. 


SPECIAL    REMARKS. 

The   numerals   cinq,   six,   sept,   huit,  neuf,  dix,  are  pro- 
nounced sink,  siss,  set',  u  \  it',  neuf,  diss,  when  isolated  or 

(nasal) 

final.     Before  vowels  or  an  h  mute  blend,  as  follows,  sin  \ 

(nasal) 

ka  I  mi;    si     za     mi;    se  |  ta     mi;     ui  |  ta  \  mi;     neu  | 
va  |  mi;    di  |  za  |  mi,  for  cinq  amis,  etc. 

Before  a  consonant  pronounce  sin,  si,  se,  u-i,  neu,  di. 


LEgONS 


i. 

La  table.     La  main.     Je  touclie  la  table. 

The  hand        I    touch 

Le  livre.     Le  livre  est  sur  la  table. 

The  book  is  on 

La  main  est  sur  le  livre.     J'ouvre  le  livre. 

I  open 
Je  touche,  tu     touches,  il  touche,  elle  touclie,  on l 

thou  he  she  they  or  one 

(indef.) 
touclie,  nous  touchons,  vous  touchez,  ils  (masc.)  touchent, 

we  you  they 

elles  (fern.)  touchent. 
they 

J'ouvre,  tu  ouvres,  il  ouvre,  elle  ouvre,  on  ouvre,  nous 
ouvrons,  vous  ouvrez,  ils  ouvrent,  elles  ouvrent. 

II. 

La  maison.     La  porte.     La  fenetre. 
house  door  window 

I^e  mur.     Le  plancher.     Le  plafond 

wall  floor  ceiling 

J' ouvre  la  porte,  j'entre  dans  la  maison  et  je  regarde  par 
enfer    into  and      look  through 

la  fenetre.    Eegardez  par  la  fenetre.     Marchez  sur  le  plan- 
Look  Walk         on 
cher.     Fermez  la  porte.     Eegardez  le  mur.     Regardez  le 

Shut 
plafond. 

Exercice.  —  Conjuguez  :    Je  touche  .    .   ../   j5 ouvre  .   .   .; 
Centre  .  .  .;  je  regarde  .  .  .;  je  marcke  .  .  .;  je  fefme  .  .  . 
1  On,  see  page  34,  second  part. 


2  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

in. 

La  page.     La  plume,     Jja-'ci;euille.     La  lettre. 

page  pen  '    leaf  letter 

Le  papier.     Le  crayon.     Le  porte-plume.     Le  mot. 
paper  pencil  pen-holder  word 

J'ai  un  livre.     Je  regarde  mon  livre.     J'ouvre  le  livre. 
I  have  a  my 

Je  regarde  la  premiere  page  de  mon  livre  frangais.     Re- 
first  French 
gardez-vous  le  livre  ?     Regardez-vous  le  papier  du    livre  ? 

of  the 

Avez-vous  un  crayon  et  du  papier  ?     Non?  mais   j'ai   un 
Have  a  some  No,       but 

porte-plume.     Avez-vous  une  f euille  de  papier  ? 

J'ai,   tu  as,    il  a,    elle  a,    on  a,    nous  avons,   vous   avez, 
have       hast      has          has        has  have  have 

ils  ont?  elles  ont. 
have 

Exercice. — Conjuguez:  Jeporte  .  .  .;  je  coupe  .  .  ./  je  donne. 
I    carry  cut  give 

IV. 

Franqais  (masc.).     Franchise  (fem.).     Le  Franqais.     La 
French  French  The  Frenchman  The 

Franchise. 
Frenchwoman 

La  langue.     L'etude.     La  grammaire. 

language         study  grammar 

La  grammaire  franchise  est  difficile.     La  langue  fran- 

is     difficult 
qaise  est  claire.     Nous  commenQons  Petude  du  franqais. 

clear 
Vous  savez  Paiiglais.  Les  Franqais  parlent  frangais. 

know      English  (language) 
Les  Franqais  savent  la  langue  franqaise.     Nous  sommes 

know  are 

americains,     Nous  etudions  la  grammaire  frangaise, 
study 


PRELIMINARY   LESSONS.  O 

Je  suis,  tu  es,  il  est,  elle  est,  on  est,  nous  sommes,  vous 

am  art        is  are 

etes,  ils  sont,  elles  sont. 
are  are 

Coiijuguez :    3'etudie  .  .  ./  je  commence  .  .  ./  j'ai  .  .  .; 

je  suis  .  .  . 

V. 

Le  maitre.     Le  professeur.     L'eleve. 

master  professor  pupil 

L'ecole.     La  classe.     La  salle. 

school  class  hall  (room) 

Nous   allons   a  Fe'cole.     Vous   allez  a  la  maison.      Le 

go          to      school  (home) 

maitre  de  fran^ais  parle  franqais  aux  eleves.     Nous  etu- 

to  the 

dions  le  f  ranqais  a  Tecole.  La  classe  de  f ranqais  est  grande. 
La  salle  de  classe  est  claire.  Regardez  le  professeur 
pendant  la  leqon.  Soyez  attentifs.  II  explique  la  leQon. 
during  Be  attentive 

Comprenez-vous  la  le^on?  Elle  (fern.)  n'est  pas  difficile. 
Understand  it 

Vous  comprendrez  si  vous  etes  attentifs. 

will  understand  if 
Exercice.  —  Conjuguez  interrogativement :    Suis-je?  etc, 

interrogatively 
Ai-je  .  .  .?    Commence-je?    Etudie-je? 

Etudiez  le  verbe  irregulier  oiler.     Je  vais,,  tu  vas,  il  va, 

to  go 
elle  va,  on  va,  nous  allons,  vous  allez,  ils  vont,  elles  vont. 

VI. 

L'Americain.      L'Americaine.      Les  Americains.       Les 
Americaines. 

La  republique  franqaise.     La  republique  des  Etats-Unis. 
republic  United  States 

Le  president    de  la   republique.     Le  gouvernement  re- 
president 


4  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

publicain.     Le  peuple  americain  aime  la  liberte;  le  peuple 

publican  people  liberty 

frangais   aussi.      Le   gouvernement  republicain  est   juste. 

also 
La  republique  est  le  gouvernement  du  peuple.    Le  roi.    La 

king 

reine.    L'Angleterre.    La  monarchic.    Les  Americains  sont 
queen      England 

libres.    Les  Franqais  sont-ils  libres  ? 
free 

Exercice.  —  Conjuguez   interrogativement :    Vais-je,    etc., 
aime-je  ? 

Et  negativement :  Je  ne  vais  pas ;  Je  ne  suis  pas ;  Je 

negatively 
n'ai  pas  ;  Je  n'aime  pas,  etc. 

VII. 

L'ancienne    monarchie    franchise.      L'empire    fran^ais. 

old 
La  revolution  franchise.     L'histoire  de  France. 

La  France    a   ete   longtemps    gouvernee   par   des    rois. 

been  for  a  long  time  governed     by     (some) 
L'histoire  de  France  est  tres  interessante. 

very  interesting 
La  monarchie  franchise  a  ete  remplacee  par  la  premiere 

replaced 
republique.     L'empire  a  remplace  la  republique.    Napoleon 

a   ete   exile   par   les   Puissances    Alliees.     Les   Bourbons 

exiled  Powers  allied 

sont  rentres  en  France, 
(have  returned) 

Exercice.  —  Conjuguez  le  passe  indefmi  du  verbe  gou- 

past       indefinite 
verner.     J'ai  gouverne,  etc. 

Conjuguez    ce    passe    indefmi   interrogativement :    Ai-je 
gouverne,  etc. 

Conjuguez  au  passe  mdefini  les  verbes  remplacer  et  exiler. 


PRELIMINARY    LESSONS.  5 

Conjuguez  ces  verbes  negativement  au  passe  indefini : 

in  the  past  indefinite 
(compound  of  the  present) 
Jo  n'ai  pas  gouverne,  etc. 

VIII. 

Les  verbes  remplacer,  exiler,  gouverner  sont  de  la  pre- 
miere conjugaison.  L'infinitif  present  de  la  premiere 
coiijugaisori  finit  en  er. 

L'infinitif  present  des  verbes  de  la  seconde  conjugaison 
finit  en  ir.  Ex.:  finir. 

to  end,  to  finish 

Present  de  Findicatif .  Je  finis,  tu  finis,  il  finit,  elle  finit, 
on  finit,  nous  finissons,  vous  finissez,  ils  fmissent,  elles 
finissent. 

Exercice.  —  Conjuguez   comme  finir  les  verbes  definir, 
like  to  define 

bdtir,      demolir,  et  nourrir. 
to  build,  to  demolish,  to  nourish 

Conjuguez  ces  verbes  interrogativement  et  negativement 
au  present  de  Findicatif. 

Conjuguez-les  au  passe  indefini :  J'ai  fini,  etc.,  j'ai  bati, 
etc. 

IX. 

L'infinitif  present  des  verbes  de  la  troisieme  conjugaison 

third 

fin^.t  en  oir.     Ex.:  recevoir. 
to  receive 

Present  de  Tindicatif.  Je  recois,  tu  recois,  il  recoit, 
elle  recoit,  on  recoit,  nous  recevons,  vous  recevez,  ils  re- 
coivent,  elles  reQoivent. 

Exercice.  —  Conjuguez  comme  recevoir  les  verbes  de- 
cevoir,  concevoir,  apercevoir,  au  present  de  1'indicatif. 
to  deceive,  to  conceive,  to  notice,  to  perceive 

Conjuguez  ces  verbes  interrogativement  et  negativement. 


b  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Conjuguez  ces  verbes  au  passe  indefmi :  J'ai  regu,  etc. ; 
j'ai  apergu,  etc. 

REMARQUE. — Les  verbes  de  la  troisieme  conjugaison  ne 
sont  pas  nombreux. 
numerous 

X. 

II  y  a   (II  existe)  quatre  conjugaisons  en  francais. 

There  is,  there  are      four 

Les  verbes  de  la  quatrieme  conjugaison  finissent  en  re 
au  present  de  Fiiifinitif .  Ex. :  rendre. 

to  return,  to  give  back 

Present  de  rindicatif.  Je  rends,  tu  rends,  il  rend,  elle 
rend,  on  rend,  nous  rendons,  vous  rendez,  ils  rendent,  elles 
rendent. 

Exercice.  —  Conjuguez  comme  rendre  les  verbes  pendre^ 

to  hang 

repondre,    tendre,      attendre  et  correspondre,  au  present  de 
to  answer     to  extend  to  wait  .to  correspond 

rindicatif. 

Conjuguez  ces  verbes  interrogativement  et  negativement 
au  present  de  rindicatif. 

Conjuguez-les  au  passe  indenni :  J'ai  rendu,  etc.;  j'ai 
correspondu,  etc. 


PART   FIRST. 


CHAPITRE    I. 

(Chapter  first.) 

La  France.  Les  Francois.  Les  Franqais  habitent  la 
France. 

La  France  est  en  Europe.  La  France  est  un  grand  et 
beau  pays.  J'aime  la  France. 

Paris  est  la  capitale  de  la  France.  Paris  est  une  grande 
et  belle  ville.  J'admire  Paris. 

Je  desire  parler  franqais.  Je  commence  1'etude  du 
francais.  J'etudie  la  langue  francaise. 

Exercice. 

a)  1 .  Ou  (where)  est  la  France  ?  2.  Ou  est  Paris  ? 
3.  La  France  est-elle  un  pays  ?  4.  La  France  est-elle 
belle  ?  5.  La  France  est-elle  grande  ?  6.  Quelle  (what) 
est  la  capitale  de  la  France?  7.  La  capitale  de  la  France 
est-elle  belle  ?  8.  Paris  est-il  grand  ?  9.  Est-il  beau  ? 
10.  Admirez-vous  Paris? 

l>)  1.  Aimez-vous  la  France?  2.  Etudiez-vous  la  langue 
franchise?  3.  La  langue  franchise  est-elle  belle?  4.  Par- 
lez-vous  franqais  ?  5.  Desirez-vous  parler  frangais  ?  6. 
Quelle  langue  desirez-vous  parler  ?  7.  Quelle  langue 
etudiez-vous?  8.  Quelle  etude  commencez-vous  ?  9.  Quel 
(masc.)  pays  est  beau  ?  10.  Quelle  ville  est  belle  ? 


8  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Grammaire  (grammar). 

1.  There  are  in  French,  as  in  English,  two  articles,  the 
definite  and  the  indefinite. 

2.  The  definite  article,  masc.  le,  fern,  la  (masc.  and  fern. 
V  before  a  vowel  or  h  mute),  plural  les.     (See  page  4.1) 

3.  The  indefinite  article,  masc.  un,  fern,  une,  plural  des. 

4.  Verbs.     Study  the  pres.  ind.  of  etre  (page  39),  and  of 
aimer  (page  45). 

5.  Conjugate  in  the  pres.  ind.  habiter,  parler,  admirer, 
commencer,  desirer,  and  etudier. 

EEMARK. — Notice  the  elision  of  e  in  f  halite,  faime, 
f  admire,  fetudie,  and  the  cedilla  in  nous  commenqons. 
(See  page  48.) 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Beautiful  France.  2.  Beautiful  Paris.  3.  France 
is  beautiful.  4.  Paris  is  a  large  city.  5.  Paris  is  beauti- 
ful. 6.  Paris  is  in  Europe.  7.  France  is  a  great  country. 

8.  I  am  French.     9.    She  is  French.     10.    I  like  Paris. 

V)  1.  You  speak  French.  2.  We  love  France.  3.  We 
admire  Paris.  4.  We  wish  to  speak  French.  5.  I  am  be- 
ginning the  study  of  French.  6.  He  is  in  Europe.  7.  She 
studies  the  French  language.  8.  We  like  to  speak  French. 

9.  The  French  love  France.     10.    Do  you  like  the  city  ? 

Libert^,  £galit£,  fraternit^. 


CHAPITRE   II. 

Autrefois  la  France  avait  un  autre  nom.  La  France 
etait  la  Gaule.  Les  habitants  de  la  Gaule  etaient  les  Gau- 
lois.  La  Gaule  etait  couverte  de  forets.  Les  Gaulois 
etaient  des  hommes  grands  et  blonds.  Us  laissaient  pous- 
ser  leurs  longs  cheveux  qui  flottaient  sur  leurs  epaules. 
1  The  pages  refer  to  the  Grammar  (second  part). 


EXERCISES. 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Ou  etait  la  Gaule  ?  2.  .  Ou  habitaient  les  Gau- 
lois  ?  3.  Qui  etaient  les  habitants  de  la  Gaule  ?  4.  Qui 
sont  les  habitants  de  la  France  ?  5.  Qui  parle  f  ranqais  ? 
6.  Les  Gaulois  etaient-ils  grands  et  forts  ?  7.  Les  Ameri- 
cains  sont-ils  grands  ?  8.  Soiit-ils  forts  ?  9.  L'Amerique 
est-elle  grande  ?  10.  Qui  habitait  la  Gaule  ?  11.  Quel 
etait  autrefois  le  nom  de  la  France  ? 

fr)  1.  L'Amerique  etait-elle  autrefois  couverte  de  forets  ? 
2.  Le  Canada  est-il  convert  de  grandes  forets  ?  3.  Ou 
est  le  Canada  ?  4.  Ou  etes-vous  ?  5.  Que  (what)  lais- 
saient  pousser  les  Gaulois  ?  6.  Que  couvraient  les  cheveux 
des  Gaulois  ?  7.  Les  forets  qui  couvraient  la  Gaule 
etaient-elles  grandes  ?  8.  Admirez-vous  les  belles  et 
grandes  forets  ?  9.  Qui  habitait  les  forets  de  la  Gaule  ? 
10.  Qui  habite  PAmerique  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Study  general  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  feminine 
and  the  plural  of  adjectives.      (See  pages  10  and  12.) 

2.  Study  the  present  indicative  of  finir  (page  45),  and 
the  imperfect  indicative  of  etre  (page  40). 

3.  Conjugate   the  imperfect  indicative  of  avoir,  aimer, 
admirer,  couvrir  (see  list  of  irr.  verbs),  etudier  (page  45). 

4.  Learn  the  rule  for  the  general  use  of  the  imperfect 
indicative  (page  68). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Paris  was  formerly  a  city  in  Gaul.  2.  The  Gauls 
inhabited  a  country  covered  with  large  forests.  3.  The 
French  inhabit  a  beautiful  country.  4.  I  wished  formerly 
to  live  in  Paris.  5.  She  wished  to  begin  the  study  of  the 
French  language.  6.  Who  were  the  Gauls  ?  7.  They 


10  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

lived  formerly  in  France.  8.  Their  long  hair  covered  their 
shoulders.  9.  The  French  love  liberty.  10.  The  French 
like  America. 

ft)  1.  I  lived  formerly  in  France,  where  did  you  live 
then  (alors)  ?  2.  You  admired  the  Gauls  ;  they  were  tall 
and  fair.  3.  What  was  formerly  the  name  of  France  ? 
4.  Did  you  wish  to  speak  the  language  of  the  Gauls,  when 
(quand)  you  were  in  France  ?  5.  Were  you  studying  their 
language  in  Paris  ?  6.  Were  you  speaking  French  ? 
7.  Did  the  first  inhabitants  of  America  also  live  in  large 
forests  ?  8.  What  study  was  she  beginning,  when  she 
lived  in  France  ?  9.  The  Gauls  loved  their  liberty. 
10.  Americans  love  equality. 

II  faut,  autant  qu'on  pent,  obliger  tout  le  monde  : 
On  a  souvent  besoin  d'un  plus  petit  que  soi. 

[LA  FONTAINE.] 


CHAPITRE    III. 

Lorsque  j'habitais  la  charmante  ville  de  Tarbes,  je  voyais 
toutes  les  semaines  a  ma  porte  un  pauvre  estropie  appele 
Miquelon,  assis  de  cote  sur  un  petit  ane  et  suivi  (followed) 
d'une  femme  et  de  trois  enfants.  Je  leur  donnais  toujours 
quelque  chose,  et  j'ecoutais  toujours  sans  impatience  Phis- 
toire  lamentable  que  Miquelon  recitait  sous  ma  fenetre^, 
"Bonnes  ames,  disait-il,  assistez  un  pauvre  homme  qui  a  ete 
un  bon  ouvrier  et  qui  n'a  pas  merite  son  malheur.  J'avais 
une  cabane  et  un  bout  de  terre  dans  la  montagne ;  mais  \\\\ 
jour  que  je  travaillais  de  grand  cceur,  la  montagne  a  croule 
et  m'a  traite  comme  me  voila."  [GEORGE  SAND.] 

Exercice. 

a)    1.    Qui  habitait  Tarbes  ?      2.    Quelle  ville  est-ce  (7,s 
it)?  (C'est=it  is.)     3.    Qui  voyait-on  a  la  porte  de  George 


EXERCISES.  1 1 

Sand  ?  4.  Comment  (how)  s'appelait  ce  pauvre  estropie  ? 
5.  Combien  Qiow  many)  d'enfants  avait-il  ?  6.  Oil  etait- 
il  assis  ?  7.  Comment  etait-il  assis  ?  8.  Sa  femme  et  ses 
enfants  etaient-ils  assis  ?  9.  Comment  George  Sand  ecou- 
tait-elle  I'histoire  de  Miqnelon  ?  10.  Etait-elle  patiente  ? 
1)  1.  Qui  suivait  (suivre)  Miquelon  ?  2.  Qu'est-ce  que 
(what)  Miquelon  recitait?  3.  Miquelon  desirait-il  etre 
assiste  ?  4.  Pourquoi  (why)  assistait-on  Miquelon  ?  (Parce 
qae=beeaiise.)  5.  Avait-il  merite  son  malheur  ?  6.  N?a- 
vait-il  pas  travaille  de  grand  coeur  ?  7.  Avait-il  ete  bon 
ouvrier?  8.  Qu'est-ce  que  Miquelon  avait  possede  dans 
la  montagne  ?  9.  Quel  accident  etait  arrive  a  Miquelon  ? 
10.  Desirez-vous  assister  les  pauvres  estropies  ? 

Grammaire. 

*"1.    Study  the  possessive  adjective  (page  16). 

2.  Conjugate    the    past    indefinite    of    ecouter,    assister, 
traiter,  etc.  (page  45). 

3.  Write  these  forms  in  the  interrogative. 

4.  Conjugate  the  pluperfect  of  the  same  verbs  (page  46). 

5.  Write  these  forms  in  the  interrogative. 

Theme. 

a)  1.  I  have  listened  to  the  poor  cripple's  story.  2.  He 
has  been  a  good  workman.  3.  He  was  not  tall.  4.  He 
was  not  seated  near  (pres  de)  my  door,  he  was  under 
the  window.  5.  I  saw  him  every  week  when  I  lived  at 
the  capital.  fQ.  Have  you  lived  in  a  hut  in  the  forest  ? 
7.  Has  the  woman  deserved  her  misfortune  ?  8.  Did  she 
work  with  all  her  heart  ?  9.  Did  you  listen  patiently  to 
her  story  ?  10.  I  am  always  patient. 

I).  1.  Here  I  am.  2.  How  have  you  helped  the  poor 
man  ?  3.  Have  you  listened  to  the  woman's  pitiful  story  ? 


12  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  How  many  childreii  has  she  ?  5.  Here  is  the  poor 
woman,  followed  by  her  children.  6.  I  have  given  them 
something.  7.  People  are  often  in  need  of  good  workmen. 
8.  The  workman's  wife  and  his  children  are  poor.  9.  My 
misfortune  has  not  been  deserved.  10.  Kind  hearts  always 
give  something  to  the  poor. 

II  ii'y  a  pas  de  vrai  bonheur  dans  P^goi'sme. 


CIIAPITRE    IV. 

Sons  Francois  Ier  Paris  ne  profita  pas  dn  mouvemeiit 
artistique  de  la  Renaissance,  mais  le  fils  de  Francois  Ier 
•  epousa  line  Florentine,  et  c'est  par  elle  surtout  que  la 
Eenaissance  nous  vint  d'ltalie.  Cette  Medicis  voulut  faire 
de  la  capitale  de  son  mari  une  imitation  de  Florence.  Elle 
y  importa  Tart  italien.  Elle  rebatit  le  Louvre,  elle  com- 
meiiQa  le  palais  des  Tuileries  a  cote  d'une  briqueterie.  A 
Tinspiratioii  de  Catherine  de  Medicis  et  a  son  exemple 
quicoiique  avait  un  iiom  dans  Taristocratie  mit  la  main  a  la 
truelle.  Le  genie  de  la  France  sembla  couler  dans  la 
pierre,  et  vouloir  faire  de  Paris  uri  chef  d'oeuvre  d? archi- 
tecture. Pierre  Lescot,  Philibert  Delorme,  Jean  Goujon 
et  bien  d'autres  encore  vinrent  de  tons  les  points  de 
Fhorizon  embellir  Paris.  [Adapte  de  EUGENE  PELLETAN.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Henri  II  (deux),  fils  de  Francois  Ier,  epousa-t-il 
une  Franchise  ?  2.  Ou  est  Florence  ?  3.  Catherine  de 
Medicis  voulut-elle  transformer  Paris  ?  4.  Qu?est-ce 
qu'elle  y  importa?  5.  Quel  palais  rebatit-elle ?  60  Le- 
quel  commenQa-t-elle  ?  7.  Ou  etait  situe  le  palais  des 
Tuileries  ?  8.  Qui  mit  la  main  a  la  truelle  ?  9.  Qui  vint 
alors  a  Paris?  10.  D'ou  venaient  ces  homines? 


EXERCISES.  13 

b)  1.  Paris  profita-t-il  immediatement  du  mouvement 
artistique  de  la  Eenaissance?  2.  D'ou  veiiait  ce  mouve- 
ment ?  3.  La  Renaissance  etait-elle  aussi  uii  mouvement 
intellectuel  ?  4.  Francois  Ier  n'avait-il  pas  fonde  le  College 
de  Prance?  5.  Connaissez-vous  Marguerite  de  Navarre, 
Fillustre  soeur  de  Francois  Ier?  6.  Fut-elle  la  protectrice 
des  poetes  et  des  artistes?  7.  Admirez-vous  Pliilibert 
Delorme,  Tarchitecte  des  Tuileries?  8.  Et  Pierre  Lescot, 
I'architecte  du  Louvre,  et  Jean  Groujon,  le  sculpteur  ? 
9.  ~Ny honor ait-on  pas  les  grands  artistes  italiens  ?  10. 
Qu'est-ce  qui  senibla  couler  dans  la  pierre  de  ces  palais  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Study  the  past  def.  of  profiler,  epouser,  importer,  com- 
mencer. 

2.  Study  the  past  def.  of  avoir,  etre,  faire,  vouloir,  venir 
(pages  40,  54,  and  45,  58,  59). 

3.  Write  the  negative,  also  negative  interrogative  of  the 
present,  imperfect,  and  past  def.  of  those  verbs. 

4.  Form  the  pres.  part,  of  all  the  verbs  in  the  lesson. 
(Consult  table  of  conjugations,  page  44.) 

5.  Study  the   syntax   of   the  past   def.    (page   70)   and 
compare  with  the  imperfect. 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Italy  profited  by  the  Eenaissance.  2.  The  Floren- 
tine architects  built  masterpieces  of  architecture.  3.  The 
French  imported  Italian  artists.  4.  The  French  rebuilt 
their  capital.  5.  Margaret  was  the  sister  of  Francis  the 
First,  and  Henry  the  Second  was  his  son.  6.  Under 
Henry  the  Second  artists  embellished  Paris.  7.  There  are 
masterpieces  of  art  in  Paris.  8.  Did  not  Francis  the  First 
embellish  Paris  ?  9.  He  invited  Italian  artists  to  come  to 
France.  10.  The  artists  worked  with  all  their  heart. 


14  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

b)  1.  The  French  architects  followed  the  example  of 
the  Italian.  2.  French  genius  was  introduced  into  the 
very  stones  of  the  palaces.  3.  Peter  Lescot  bnilt  a  master- 
piece of  architecture.  4.  There  were  great  artists  who 
followed  Catherine  to  France.  5.  The  French  aristocracy, 
imitating  Catherine,  set  to  work.  6.  They  began  the  re- 
construction of  their  castles.  7.  Did  you  wish  (desirer)  to 
know  the  history  of  the  Renaissance  ?  8.  Why  did  the 
son  of  Francis  the  First  marry  a  Florentine  ?  9.  Why  did 
Catherine  de  Medicis  rebuild  the  Louvre  ?  10.  Why  did 
Catherine  wish  to  make  of  Paris  another  Florence  ? 

La  nature  est  prudent e  et  sage, 
Obelssez-lui,  c'est  le  mieux ; 
Tout  homme,  en  tout  temps,  en  tout  lieux, 
Doit  se  conformer  a  son  age. 

[REGNIER  DESMARAIS.] 


CHAPITRE   V. 
DE  LA  GLOIRE  DU  CONQUERANT. 

Sa  gloire  sera  toujours  souillee  de  sang  ;  quelque  insense 
chantera  peut-etre  ses  victoires  ;  mais  les  provinces,  les 
villes,  les  campagnes  pleureront  :  on  lui  dressera  des  monu- 
ments superbes  pour  immortaliser  ses  conquetes  ;  mais  les 
cendres  de  tant  de  villes  autrefois  florissantes,  mais  la 
desolation  de  tant  de  campagnes  depouillees  de  leur  an- 
cienne  beaute,  mais  les  mines  de  tant  de  murs  sous  les- 
quelles  des  citoyens  paisibles  ont  ete  ensevelis,  mais  tant 
de  calarnites  qui  subsisteront  apres  lui,  seront  des  monu- 
ments lugubres*  qui  immortaliseront  sa  vanite  et  sa  folie. 


Exercice. 

a)    1.    Qui  chantera  les  victoires  du  conquerant  ?    2.  Qui 
les  pleurera  ?    3,   Qu'est-ce  qui  les  souille  ?    4, 


EXERCISES.  15 

lui  dressera-t-on  des  monuments  ?  5.  Qu'est-ce  qui  est  dans 
la  desolation  ?  6.  Qui  a  depouille  les  campagnes  de  leur 
beaute?  7.  Qui  a  convert  le  pays  de  mines?  8.  La  gnerre 
(war)  est-elle  une  terrible  calamite  ?  9.  Les  citoyens 
paisibles  admirent-ils  les  conquerants  ?  10.  Quels  monu- 
ments lugubres  immortaliseront  la  vanite  du  conquerant  ? 

5)  1.  Avez-vous  enteiidu  (heard)  parler  de  la  gloire  de 
Napoleon?  2.  Sa  gloire  sera-t-elle  pure,  on  sera-t-elle 
souillee  de  sang  ?  3.  Quels  monuments  lui  a-t-on  dresses  ? 
4.  Ces  monuments  seront-ils  immortels  ?  5.  Qu?est-ce 
qu'ils  immortaliseront  ?  6.  Les  citoyens  paisibles  sont-ils 
amis  des  conquerants  ?  7.  La  gloire  de  Louis  XIV 
(quatorze)  subsistera-t-elle  apres  de  si  grandes  calamites  ? 

8.  De  quoi  Louis  XIV  a-t-il   depouille   les    campagnes  ? 

9.  La  guerre  est-elle  vraiment  glorieuse  ?     10.    Les  guerres 
de  Louis  XIV  ont-elles  ete  la  cause  de  bien  des  mines 
(much  disaster)*? 

Grammaire.     • 

1.  Study  the  future  of   the  verbs   in  the  lesson,  after 
having  learned  how  to  form  the  future  of  French  verbs 
from  the  infinitive  (page  43). 

2.  Write   in  the   negative  the   future   of   etre,  chanter, 
fleurir-,  in  the  interrogative  the  future  of  avoir,  pleurer, 
depouiller  ;  and  in  the  negative  interrogative  the  future  of 
souiller,  subsister,  immortaliser. 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Fools  will  perhaps  sing  the  conqueror's  glory. 
2.  Peaceable  citizens  will  not  like  him.  3.  The  history 
of  wars  will  be  for  them  (leur  or  pour  eux)  the  pitiful  history 
of  the  ruin  and  misfortune  of  countries.  4.  People  will 
rebuild  the  cities.  5.  They  will  flourish  again.  6.  The 
fields  will  regain  (retrouver)  their  former  beauty.  7.  Monu- 
ments will  be  erected  (on  ,  ,  ,)  to  immortalize  peaceable 


16  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

men.  8.  People  will  celebrate  (celebrer)  the  arts  of  peace 
(la  paix).  9.  They  will  follow  nature's  lessons.  10.  Wise 
men  will  obey  the  lessons  of  prudent  nature. 

£)  1.  Peaceable  citizens  will  not  erect  monuments  to 
Louis  XIV  ;  they  will  think  (penser  a)  of  the  desola- 
tion of  cities,  and  the  devastation  of  countries.  2.  The 
calamities  which  (que)  his  (ses)  wars  have  caused  will 
remain  long  (longtemps)  after  him.  3.  I  will  never  (ne  .  .  . 
jamais)  celebrate  his  victories  :  they  will  always  be  stained 
with  blood.  4.  Will  people  mourn  over  (^pleurer)  his  vic- 
tories ?  5.  Were  countries  robbed  (depouiller)  of  their 
former  beauty  ?  6.  Peaceable  citizens  were  buried  under 
the  walls  of  cities.  7.  Many  flourishing  cities  were 
burned.  8.  These  ruins  will  be  sad  (lugubre)  monuments 
of  his  vanity  and  madness.  9.  Napoleon  stained  with 
blood  the  glory  of  his  reign.  10.  Will  cities  and  country 
regain  their  former  beauty  ? 

Les  lions  ne  font  point  la  guerre  aux  lions,  ni  les  tigres  aux  tigres  ; 
ils  n'attaquent  que  les  animaux  d'espece  diffe"rente  :  1'homme  seul, 
malgre"  sa  raison,  fait  ce  que  les  animaux  sans  raison  ne  nrent  jamais. 


CHAPITRE   VI. 
UN  REVE  DE  BONHEUR. 

Sur  le  penchant  de  quelque  agreable  colline  bien  om- 
bragee,  j'aurais  une  petite  maison  rustique,  une  maison 
blanche  avec  des  contrevents  verts.  J'aurais  pour  cour 
une  basse-cour,  et  pour  ecurie  une  etable  avec  des  vaches, 
afin  d'avoir  du  laitage  que  j'aime  beaucoup.  J'aurais  un 
potager  pour  jardin,  et  pour  pare  un  joli  verger.  La,  tons 
les  airs  de  la  ville  seraient  oublies,  et  devenus  villageois 
an  village,  nous  nous  trouverions  livres  a  des  foules  d'amu- 
sements  divers.  L'exercice  et  la  vie  active  nous  feraient 
un  nouvel  estomac  et  de  nouveaux  gouts.  La  salle  a  man- 


EXERCISES.  17 

ger  serait  partout,  dans  le  jardin,  dans  un  bateau,  sous  un 
arbre,  on  aurait  le  gazon  pour  tables  et  pour  chaises,  les 
bords  de  la  fontaine  serviraient  de  buffet,  et  le  dessert 
pendrait  aux  arbres.  Le  temps  passerait  sans  le  compter. 
[JEAN-JACQUES  ROUSSEAU.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Oil  serait  situee  la  maison  de  Jean- Jacques  ? 
2.  De  quelle  couleur  serait-elle  ?  3.  Quelle  cour  aurait-il  ? 
4.  Quels  animaux  habitent  la  basse-cour  ?  (Des  ponies, 
des  canards,  des  oies,  des  dindons,  etc.)  5.  Pourquoi 
voudrait-il  une  etable  a  vache  ?  6.  Que  trouverait-il  dans 
son  potager  ?  (Des  legumes,  pommes  de  terre,  pois,  feves, 
asperges,  etc.)  7.  Qu'y  aurait-il  (y  avoir,  pres.  indie,  il 
y  a,  cond.  il  y  aurait,)  dans  son  verger  ?  (Des  fruits, 
pommes,  poires,  cerises,  fraises,  etc.)  8.  Qui  seraient  ses 
compagnons  an  village  ?  9.  On  serait  sa  salle  a  manger  ? 
10.  Qu'est-ce  qui  lui  servirait  de  buffet  ? 

ft)  1.  Si  vous  reviez  le  bonheur,  auriez-vous  le  reve  de 
Jean-Jacques  ?  2.  Tous  les  homines  auraient-ils  le  meme 
reve  ?  3.  Si  vous  habitiez  la  campagne,  auriez-vous  un 
potager  ?  4.  Ne  prefereriez-vous  pas  un  pare  ?  5.  Pour- 
riez-vous  (pouvoir^^  be  able)  oublier  tons  les  airs  de  la 
ville  ?  6.  Les  amusements  des  villageois  deviendraient-ils 
(devenir)  les  votres  (yours)?  7.  L'exercice  en  plein  air 
(open  air)  vous  ferait-il  une  nouvelle  vie  ?  8.  Serait-il 
facile  de  vous  faire  de  nouveaux  gouts  ?  9.  Le  climat  de 
Boston  permettrait-il  d'avoir  la  salle  a  manger  dans  le 
jardin?  10.  Prefereriez-vous  toujours  la  campagne  a  la 

ville  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Study  the  conditional  of  the  verbs  in  the  lesson,  after 
having  learned  how  to  form  the  conditional  of  French 
verbs  from  the  infinitive  (page  43), 


18  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  Write  in  the  interrogative  the  conditional  of  avoir, 
aimer,  ombrager. 

3.  Write  in  the  negative  the  conditional  of  etre,  pouvoir, 
servir. 

4.  Write  in  the  negative  interrogative  the  conditional 
of  faire,  devenir,  pzndre,  permettre. 

5.  Study  the  syntax  of  the  conditional  (page  74). 

6.  Stndy  the   formation  and  syntax  of  the  past   part, 
(pages  88-91). 

Theme. 

a)  1.   I  shonld  like  to  have  a  little  honse  in  the  country. 
2.    I  would  have  it  white  and  green.     3.    Would  you  like 
(cond.   of   vouloir)   to  have   some   cows  ?      4.    Would  you 
forget  the  pleasures  of  the  city  ?     5.    Would  you  become 
a  villager  in  a  village  ?     6.    Would  you  like  exercise  and 
an  active  life  ?     7.    I  should  prefer  the  city.     8.    Would 
not   a  peaceful    life    be    better    than   (meilleure   que)   the 
commotion   of    the    city  ?      9.    No,    solitude  .is    disagree- 
able to  me  (m'est).     10.    I  prefer  a  great  city  like  (comme) 
Paris. 

b)  1.    If  men  ever  were  happy  they  would  be  so  (it  =  le, 
page  90)  in  the  country.     2.    There  (la)  the  poor  of  the 
city  could  find  a  little  house  with  (avec)  a  garden.    3.   They 
could  have  vegetables  and  milk.     4.    They  could  forget  the 
vanities  of  the  city,     5.   And  they  could  admire  the  beauty 
(la  beaute)   of   nature.      6.    If    I   had   lived  in  the   16th 
century  (au  .  .  .  siecle)  I  should  have  liked  to   see  the 
great   artists.      7.    I  would  have   watched   (regarder)   the 
building  (use  the  infin.  bdtir)  of  the  Louvre.     8.   Would 
you  not  have  admired  the  French  sculptors?    9.  Would  you 
like  to  see  the  monuments  they  have  built  ?     10.   Would 
time    pass  unnoticed   (sans   le  compter)  if  you  were  with 
them  (eux)? 


EXERCISES.  19 

1.  Jamais  nous  ne  goutons  de  parfaite  altegresse, 
Nos  plus  heureux  succes  sont  m&e's  de  tristesse. 

[CORNEILLE.] 

2.  II  en  coute  trop  cher  pour  briller  dans  le  monde ; 
Combien  je  vais  aimer  ma  retraite  profonde  ! 
Pour  vivre  heureux,  vivons  cache*  ! 

[FLORIAN.] 


CHAPITRE   YII. 
UN  RAPT  D'ENFANTS. 

Pierre  Huber,  fils  du  celebre  observateur  des  abeilles  se 
promenant  dans  line  campagne  pres  de  G-eneve,  vit  a  terre 
une  forte  colonne  de  fourmis  roussatres  qui  etaient  en 
marclie  et  s'avisa  de  la  suivre.  Sur  les  flancs  quelques 
unes  allaient  et  venaient  comme  pour  aligner  la  colonne. 
Elles  s'arretent  devant  une  fourmiliere  de  petites  fourmis 
noires  ;  un  combat  acharne  s'engage  aux  portes.  Les  noires 
resistent  en  petit  nombre,  la  grande  masse  du  peuple  atta- 
que  s'enfuyait  par  les  portes  les  plus  eloignees  du  combat, 
emportant  leurs  petits.  C'etait  precisement  de  ces  petits 
qu'il  s'agissait ;  ce  que  les  noires  craignaient  avec  raison, 
c'etait  un  vol  d'enfants.  II  vit  bientot  que  les  assaillants 
qui  avaient  pu  penetrer  dans  la  place  en  ressortaient 
charges  d?enfants  des  noires.  On  aurait  cru  voir  sur  la 
cote  d'Afrique  une  descente  de  negriers.  [MICHELET.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Qu'etait  le  pere  de  Pierre  Huber?  2.  Ou  est 
Geneve  ?  (La  Suisse.)  3.  Que  vit  Tobservateur  ?  4.  Que 
faisaient  les  fourmis  ?  5.  De  quoi  s'avisa  Huber  ?  6.  Ou 
allaient  et  venaient  quelques  fourmis  ?  7.  Ou  s'arreterent- 
elles  ?  8.  Qu'est-ce  qui  s'engagea  bientot  ?  9.  Les  four- 
mis  noires  resisterent-elles  en  nombre  ?  10.  Que  fit  la- 
grande  masse  des  fourmis  noires  ? 


20  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

b)  1.  Pourquoi  les  fourmis  noires  s'enfuyaient-elles  ? 
2.  De  qui  s'agissait-il  dans  cette  attaque  ?  3.  Que 
craignaient  les  noires  ?  4.  Qui  avait  penetre  dans  la  place  ? 
5.  Comment  les  assaillants  ressortaient-ils  ?  6.  Qu'auriez- 
vous  cm  voir  si  vous  aviez  ete  present  ?  7.  Auriez-vous 
celebre  la  gloire  des  fourmis  roussatres  ?  8.  N'auriez-vous 
pas  fait  un  effort  ponr  sauver  les  noires  ?  9.  Les  con- 
querants  ne  sont-ils  pas  plus  cruels  que  les  tigres  ?  10.  Si 
les  liommes  etaient  sages,  n'auraient-ils  pas  horreur  de 
leurs  exploits  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Study  the  reflexive  verb  se  promener  in  the  indicative 
and  conditional  (page  60). 

2.  Conjugate  s'avise?*,  sfarreter,  s'engager. 

3.  Study  the  irregular  verbs  oiler  and  voir  (pages  51,  59). 

4.  Study  the  irregular  verbs  craindre  and  s'enfuir  (pages 
53,  54). 

5.  Study  the  impersonal  verb  s'agir  (finir,  page  44). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Huber  was  a  celebrated  man,  who  had  studied 
the  habits  of  (not  to  be  translated)  bees.  2.  His  son 
followed  his  example.  3.  He  stopped  before  a  swarm  of 
red  ants.  4.  They  attacked  the  dwelling  of  some  (quelque) 
black  ants.  5.  Only  (seulement)  a  small  number  of  the 
black  ants  resisted  the  attack.  6.  The  black  ones  fled 
because  they  feared  for  their  children.  7.  There  was  good 
reason  for  that  fear  (cette  crainte).  8.  The  red  ants  stole 
(voter)  the  children  of  the  black  ones.  9.  You  would  have 
believed  yourself  to  be  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  10.  Do  you 
believe  that  (que)  Huber  stopped  the  red  ants  ? 

Z>)  1.  I  was  walking  in  the  country  when  I  noticed  a 
crowd  of  poor  people.  2.  They  were  marching  fast. 


EXERCISES.  21 

3.  Some  of  them  were  coming,  some  going,  all  were  carry- 
ing something  (la  chose).  4.  They  told  me  (on  me  dit)  that 
the  village  would  soon  be  attacked  by  the  conqueror. 
5.  And  they  said  the  inhabitants  were  fleeing,  carrying 
away  (emporter)  their  children  and  their  most  precious 
goods  (biens  les  plus  precieux).  6.  Why  did  these  poor 
people  not  resist  the  conqueror  ?  7.  They  were  feeble  and 
could  not  do  so.  8.  What  do  you  think  of  (jpenser  de)  such 
a  victory  ?  9.  Would  its  glory  deserve  to  be  immortalized 
by  a  monument  ?  10.  Would  the  people  mourn  for  their 
homes  ? 

Le  bonheur  des  mediants  comine  un  torrent  s'e"coule. 

[JEAN  RACINE.] 


CHAPITRE    VIII. 
DEPART  DE  GALSWINTHE  POUR  LA  COUR  DE 

Une  longue  file  de  cavaliers,  de  voitures,  et  de  chariots 
de  bagages  traversa  les  rues  de  Tolede  et  se  dirigea  vers  la 
porte  du  Nord.  Le  roi^suivit  a  cheval  le  cortege  de  sa  fille 
jusqu'a  un  pont  jete  sur  le  Tage,  a  quelque  distance  de  la 
ville ;  mais  la  reine  ne  put  se  resoudre  a  retourner  si  vite, 
et  voulut  aller  au  dela.  Quittant  son  propre  char,  elle 
s'assit  aupres  de  Galswinthe,  et  de  journee  en  journee  elle 
se  laissa  entrainer  a  plus  de  cent  milles  de  distance. 
Chaque  jour  elle  disait :  "C'est  jusque  la  que  je  veux 
aller."  Et,  parvenue  a  ce  terme,  elle  p'assait  outre  (beyond). 
ATapproche  des  montagnes,  les  chemins  devinrent  difficiles; 
elle  ne  s'en  apercut  pas,  et  voulut  aller  encore  plus  loin. 
Mais  comine  les  gens  qui  la  suivaient,  grossissant  beaucoup 
le  cortege,  augmentaient  les  embarras  et  les  dangers  du 

1  Neustrie,  n.  f.  One  of  the  Frank  kingdoms  during  the  time  of  the 
Merovingians.  It  comprised  the  country  between  Brittany  and  the  rivers 
Loire  and  Meuse. 


22  TRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

voyage,  les  seigneurs  goths  resolurent  de  ne  pas  permettre 
que  leur  reine  fit  1111  mille  de  plus.  II  fallut  se  resigner  a 
une  separation  inevitable,  et  de  nouvelles  scenes  de  ten- 
dresse,  mais  plus  calmes,  eurent  lieu  entre  la  mere  et  la 
fille.  [AUGUSTUS  THIERRY.] 

Exercice. 

a)    1.    Qu'e'tait  la  Neustrie  ?      2.    Ou  etait-elle   situee  ? 

3.  De  qui  Galswinthe   etait-elle  fille  ?     4.    Quel  pays  les 
Goths  occupaient-ils  ?     5.    L'ancienne  ville  de  Tolede  ex- 
iste-elle  encore  ?     6.    De  quoi  se  composait  le  cortege  de 
Galswinthe  ?     7.    Jusqu'ou  le  roi  suivit-il  le  cortege  de  sa 
fille  ?     8.    A  quoi  lie  put  se  resoudre  la  reine  ?     9.    Pour- 
quoi  la  reine  voulut-elle  aller  an  dela  du  pont  ?     10.    Ou 
s'assit-elle  pour  continuer  le  voyage  ? 

&)    1.    Que  disait-elle  chaque  jour  ?     2.    Que  faisait-elle 
parvenue  au  terme  fixe  ?    3.  Connaissez-vous  les  Pyrenees  ? 

4.  Ou  sont  ces  montagnes  ?     5.    La  reine  s'apergut-elle  de 
la   difficulte    des    chemins  ?     6.   Qu'est-ce   qui   augmentait 
les    embarras   du  voyage  ?      7.    Quelle    resolution   prirent 
les  seigneurs    goths  ?     8.    La  reine   dut-elle   se   resigner  ? 
9.    A  quoi  lui   fallut-il   se   resigner  ?      10.    Qu?est-ce   qui 
eut  lieu  lors  de  la  separation  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verbs  augment er,  se  diriger,  s'apercevoir, 
in  the  imperfect  and  past  def.  (pages  44,  60). 

2.  Study  the  irregular  verbs  devenir,  faire,  suivre,  pou- 
voir,  and  vouloir  in  the  imperfect  and  past  def.  (pages  58, 
54,  56,  59). 

3.  Write  all  these  verbs  in  the  interrogative. 

4.  Study  the  irregular  verbs  se  resoudre,  s'asseoir,  in  the 
imperfect  and  past  def.  (pages  57,  51). 


EXERCISES.  23 

5.  Study  the  syntax  of  the  imperfect  and  past  def. 
(pages  68-72). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  What  did  the  long  file  of  riders  do  ?  2.  Were 
there  (y  avoir)  horsemen  only?  3.  How  did  the  king 
follow  Galswinthe  ?  4.  Was  the  bridge  near  the  town  ? 
5.  Where  did  the  queen  wish  to  go  ?  6.  When  she  left 
her  own  chariot,  what  did  she  do  ?  7.  How  long  did  she 
remain  with  her  daughter  ?  8.  "  I  want  to  go  as  far  as 
that  point/'  said  she.  9.  She  did  not  perceive  that  the 
roads  were  becoming  difficult,  and  that  they  were  ap- 
proaching the  mountains.  10.  The  crowd  of  people  which 
followed  her  increased  the  danger  of  the  journey. 

fr)  A.  long  file  of  carriages  and  of  baggage-wagons  were 
traversing  the  streets  of  Toledo,  when  the  horsemen 
entered  the  northern  gate  of  the  town.  2.  They  were 
throwing  a  bridge  across  the  Tagus,  when  the  procession 
arrived.  3.  The  queen  was  not  able  to  return  as  quickly 
(aussi  vite)  as  she  wished.  4.  From  day  to  day  she  passed 
J)eyond  the  point  where  she  wished  to  go.  5.  She  passed 
over  the  mountains  without  perceiving  the  increasing 
dangers  of  the  way.  6.  The  Goths  determined  that  their 
queen  should  not  go  another  mile.  7.  The  separation  of 
mother  and  daughter  was  inevitable.  8.  New  scenes  of 
tenderness  took  place  between  them.  9.  Were  these 
scenes  more  calm  than  those  at  the  beginning  of  the 
journey?  10.  This  history  was  written  by  Augustus 
Thierry,  a  Frenchman. 

Eh  !  qui  pourrait  compter  les  bienfaits  d'une  mere  ! 
A  peine  nous  ouvrons  les  yeux  a  la  lumiere, 
Que  nous  recevons  d'elle,  en  respirant  le  jour, 
Les  premieres  lemons  de  tendresse  et  d' am  our. 

[LEGOUVE.] 


24  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPITRE    IX. 

LES  LANDES. 

On  clonne  le  nom  de  landes  a  des  terres  incultes  qui  se 
trouvent  principalement  dans  le  sud  de  la  France  et  en 
Bretagne.  Un  de  nos  departements  en  a  tire  son  nom. 
La,  dans  des  forets  qni  s'etendent  de  Bordeaux  a  Bayonne, 
sous  les  grands  pins  qui  seiitent  bon,  des  boeufs  ou  des 
brebis  fort  petits  paissent  1'herbe  clair-semee  et  les  genets 
dores  dont  les  fleurs  fraiches  ecloses  semblent  eclairer  la 
profondeur  des  bois.  On  y  trouve  aussi  des  chevaux  demi- 
sauvages  que  les  habitants  ne  peuvent  saisir  que  grace  a 
une  habilete,  a  une  audace  surprenante.  L'oie  et  le  canard 
sauvages,  le  heron  aux  ailes  brun-cendre  se  donnent  rendez- 
vous an  bord  des  grands  etangs,  a  Pombre  des  pins  elances 
on  Fecureuil  saute  de  branche  en  branche  avec  une  agilite, 
une  adresse  merveilleuse.  [DUSSOUCHET.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Qu?est-ce  que  les  landes  ?  (Ce  sont.)  2.  Ou  sont- 
slles  situees  ?  3.  Ou  se  trouve  la  Bretagne  ?  4.  Ou  est- 
le  departement  des  Landes  ?  5.  Qu?est-ce  qui  s'etend  de 
Bordeaux  a  Bayonne?  6.  Quels  arbres  y  trouve-t-on? 
7.  Quels  animaux  y  paissent?  8.  Qu'y  trouvent-ils  a 
paitre  ?  9.  Que  semblent  faire  les  fleurs  des  genets  ? 
10.  Quels  chevaux  y  a-t-il  dans  les  landes  ? 

ti)  1.  Comment  les  habitants  des  landes  arrivent-ils  a 
saisir  les  chevaux  qui  s'y  trouvent?  2.  Quels  oiseaux 
sauvages  se  donnent  rendez-vous  au  bord  des  grands 
etangs  ?  3.  Comment  1'ecureuil  saute-t-il  sur  les  branches 
des  pins?  4.  Pourquoi  les  chevaux  des  landes  sont-ils 
difficiles  a  saisir?  5.  Pourquoi  les  animaux  aiment-ils  les 
grands  pins  des  landes?  6.  Qu'est-ce  qui  vous  surprend 
dans  les  habitants  des  landes?  7.  Quand  les  fleurs  des 


EXERCISES.  25 

genets  sont-elles  le  plus  belles  ?  8.  Quels  herons  voit-on 
dans  les  landes  ?  9.  Que  preferez-vous  :  les  plaiiies  et  les 
forets  des  landes  ou  les  rocs  enormes  des  Pyrenees? 
10.  Pourquoi  les  preferez-vous? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Study  the  rules  for  the  agreement  of  adjectives  (pages 
9—13),  and  apply  them  to  the  text  of  this  lesson. 

2.  Conjugate  the  verbs  se  trouver,  tirer,  s'etendre,  sentir, 
pattre,  pouvoir,  saisir,  in  all  tenses  of  the  indicative  and 
conditional,  and  the  verbs  surprendre  and  voir,  in  the  in- 
dicative (pages  60,  44,  55,  56,  57,  59). 

3.  Write  these  verbs  in  the  interrogative  negative  form. 

Theme. 

a)  1.    What  name  is  given  to'  the  waste  lands  of  France 
and  Brittany  ?     2.    Some  are  found  in  the  sputhern  part  of 
France.     3.    Has  any  department  of  France  been  given  the 
name  of  Landes  ?     4.    These  forests  extend  from  Bordeaux 
to  Bayonne.     5.    Cattle  and  sheep  feed  on  the  grass  under 
the  tall  pines.     6.    The   grass   is   not  thick   under    these 
pines.     7.    The  golden  broom  and  freshly  opened  flowers 
seem  to  light  up  the  depths  of  the   wood.     8.    Half-wild 
horses  are  found  there.     9.   The  sheep  are  very  small  there. 
10.    Many  cattle  come  from  there. 

b)  1.    The  inhabitants,  thanks  to  their  skill  and  cour- 
age, catch  the  half-wild  horses.      2.    Wild  birds  are  also 
found  on  the  borders  of  the  ponds  in  the  depths  of  the 
forests.     3.    The  heron,  with  ashy-brown  wings,  is  found 
there.     4.   Wild  geese  and  ducks  in  great  numbers   meet 
on  the  shores  of  the  large  ponds.     5.    The  slender  pines 
are  a  refuge  (asile)  for  the  little  brown  squirrels.     6.    They 
leap  from  branch  to  branch.     7.    They  are  very  agile,  and 
wonderfully   clever.      8.    The  squirrels  are  nimble   in  all 


26  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

their  movements.  9.  The  horses  and  oxen  are  less  active 
than  the"  smaller  animals.  10.  Would  yon  like  to  visit 
that  part  of  France  if  yon  shonld  go  to  Europe  ? 

J'aime  le  son  du  cor,  le  soir,  au  fond  des  bois, 
Soit  qu'il  chante  les  pleurs  de  la  biche  aux  abois, 
Ou  P  adieu  du  chasseur  que  1'e'clio  faible  accueille 
Et  que  le  vent  du  nord  porte  de  feuille  en  feuille. 

[ALFRED  DE  VIGNY.] 


CHAPITRE   X. 

ADIEU  DU  MA!TRE. 

Sois  honnete  !  Et  si  ce  n'est  pas  assez  qiie  ta  conscience 
le  commande,  sache  qne  Piiiteret  meme  de  ton  avenir 
Pexige  !  ISTe  pense  pas  en  effet,  jenne  homme,  tronver 
line  inspiration  sincere  et  durable  dans  les  emotions  dii 
desordre  et  dans  Pexcitation  maladive  des  passions.  Je 
sais  qnelles  tentations  redoutables  assiegent  P  imagination 
et  la  vie  fievrenses  de  P  artiste ;  je  le  sais  et  til  le  sanras 
bieiitot  toi-meme.  Mais  si  tn  n'as  pas  le  conrage  de  re- 
ponsser  les  entrainements  vnlgaires,  tn  es  perdn.  Son- 
viens-toi  qne  les  anciens,  dans  lenrs  profondes  allegories 
appelaient  dii  meme  nom  la  vertn  et  la  force  !  Regie  done 
ton  ccenr  et  regie  ta  vie  .  .  .  tout  est  la.  Nons  allons 
nons  quitter,  mon  ami.  Je  te  remercie  des  joies  qne  til 
m?as  donnees,  et  je  prie  Dien  qii'il  t'en  recompense.  Et 
mainteiiant,  adien,  moil  enfant,  adien,  mon  disciple  bien- 
aime.  [OCTAVE  FEUILLET.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Qiie  commande  la  conscience?  2.  Qiie  nous  com- 
mande  Tinteret  de  notre  avenir?  3.  Qiielles  tentations 
assiegent  Partiste  ?  4.  Son  imagination  et  sa  vie  sont-elles 


EXERCISES.  27 

fievreuses?  5.  Que  doit-il  repousser?  6.  Quelles  allego- 
ries avaient  les  anciens  ?  7.  Les  aiiciens  Remains  etaient- 
ils  forts?  8.  Le  mot  latin  "virtus"  avait-il  line  double 
signification  ?  9.  Quelles  sont  ces  deux  significations  ? 
10.  Que  f aut-il  regler  ? 

b)  1.  Qui  devait  se  quitter?  2.  De  quoi  le  maitre 
remerciait-il  Dieu?  3.  Quelle  priere  adressait-il  a  Dieu? 
4.  Quel  courage  le  disciple  devait-il  avoir  ?  5.  S'il  n'avait 
pas  ce  courage,  que  lui  arriverait-il  ?  6.  OIL  le  jeune 
artiste  doit-il  eviter  de  chercher  ses  inspirations  ?  7.  De 
quoi  doit-il  se  souvenir  ?  8.  Que  saura-t-il  bientot  ? 
9.  Quelles  joies  croyez-vous  que  le  disciple  ait  donnees  au 
maitre  ?  10.  Croyez-vous  que  Dieu  Ten  recompense  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Write  the  imperative  of  etre,  savoir,  penser,  exiger, 
regler,  perdre,   remercier,    assieger,    devoir >   croire    (regular 
verbs,  page  44,  irregular  verbs,  see  list). 

2.  Write  these  imperatives  in  the  negative. 

3.  Write  the  imperative  of  ^he  following  reflexive  verbs 
both  in  the   affirmative   and  negative :    se  coinmander,   se 
souvenir,  s'appeler,  and  se  quitter  (page  60). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Be  upright !  is  the  first  command  of  conscience. 
2.  Your  future  depends  upon  it.  3.  Do  not  think,  young 
man,  that  you  will  find  an  inspiration  in  emotions,  or  in 
excitement.  4.  Be  strong !  said  the  Eomans,  but  they 
called  strength  and  virtue  by  the  same  name.  5.  Fearful 
temptations  assail  the  imagination,  in  the  life  of  an  artist. 
6.  Know  that  and  be  courageous  !  7.  You  yourself  will 
soon  kuow  the  allurements  of  that  life.  8.  If  you  do  not 
have  the  courage  to  resist  them,  you  will  be  ruined. 


28  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

9.   These  temptations  are  to  be  feared,  I  know  it.     10.    Re- 
member, then,  my  counsel ! 

V)  1.  The  allegories  of  the  ancients  are  well-known. 
2.  Order  your  life  by  their  precepts,  my  son,  and  you  will 
give  me  much  happiness.  3.  We  are  about  to  separate. 
4.  I  shall  pray  to  God  for  you,  and  thank  him  for  the  joy 
you  have  given  me.  5.  Let  not  temptation  overcome  you  ! 
6.  Be  faithful  and  thank  God  for  the  wise  counsels  of 
your  parents  and  friends.  7.  If  temptations  assail  you, 
remember  what  I  have  told  you.  8.  You  have  been  my 
beloved  pupil  and  son.  9.  May  no  evil  come  to  you !  is 
the  desire  of  my  heart.  10.  Believe  me,  and  God  will 
recompense  you  for  it. 

C'est  une  opinion  fausse  et  impie  que  la  verite  soit  tellement  sem- 
blable  au  mensonge,  et  la  vertu  au  vice,  qu'il  soit  impossible  de  les 
discerner :  mais  il  est  vrai  que  dans  la  plupart  des  choses  il  y  a  un 
melange  d'erreur  et  de  ve'rite',  de  vice  et  de  vertu,  de  perfection  et 
d' imperfection.  [ANTOINE  ARNAULD.] 


CHAPITRE    XT. 

Octave  Feuillet  se  mit  en-route  avec  un  bonheur  d'ecolier 
en  vacaiices.  Par  crainte  du  chemin  de  fer,  qui  fatiguait 
ses  nerfs  surexcites,  et  surtout  par  fantaisie  d'elegant 
attache  aux  choses  d'autrefois,  il  etait  parti  en  chaise  de 
poste,  avec  ses  deux  compagnoiis,  couchant  dans  des  au- 
berges,  de  village  en  village,  ayant  des  aventures  et  faisaiit 
des  rencontres  inattendues.  De  chaque  etape,  il  ecrivait  a 
sa  femme  des  lettres  pleines  d'un  entrain  d'enfant :  "  Je 
m'amuse  tant,  disait-il,  je  monte  gaiment  toutes  les  cotes  a 
pied  et  mon  ami  me  suit  en  chantant  des  chansons.  On 
dirait  que  nous  allons  a  la  victoire.  Si  la  victoire  est  une 
chute,  tant  pis,  nous  aurons  eu  au  moins  de  bons  moments 
en  route!"  PiEin?-:  --."I 


EXERCISES.  29 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Comiaissez-vous    le    romancier    Octave    Feuillet? 
2.    Dans   quels   sentiments    se    mit-il    en    route?     3.    Que 
craignait-il  ?     4.    Pourquoi  craignait-il  le  chemiri  de  f er  ? 
4.    A  quoi  Feuillet  etait-il  attache?     5.    Que  preferait-il  an 
chemin  de  fer?     6.    Qui  etait  avec  lui  en  chaise  de  poste. 

7.  Ou    couchaient    les  voyageurs  ?     8.    Que    trouvaient-ils 
dans    les   villages?     9.    A    qui    ecrivait   Octave   Feuillet? 
10.    Quelles  lettres  ecrivait-il  ? 

b)  1.    D'ou  Feuillet  ecrivait-il  ses  lettres  ?    2.    Pourquoi 
Feuillet  s?amusait-il  ?     3.   Que  f aisait  son  ami  ?     4.   Qu'au- 
rait-on  dit?    5.   Feuillet  allait-il  a  des  victoires  litteraires? 
6.    Craignait-il  une  chute  ?     7.    Quelle  consolation  aurait-il 
eu,    si    le   voyage    ne    Tavait   pas    conduit    a  la  victoire? 

8.  Croyez-vous  qu/il  fut  retourne   console  a  son  village? 

9.  Croyez-vous  qu'Octave  Feuillet  sut  regler  son  coeur  et 
sa  vie?     10.    Est-il  facile   de  les   regler   quand  les   nerfs 
sont  surexcites? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verb  partir  in  the  indicative  and  condi- 
tional, (auxiliary  etre),  (page  56). 

2.  Conjugate  the  future  and*  future  anterior  of  se  mettre, 
fatiguer,  coucher,  avoir,  faire,  ecrire,  dire,  chanter  (pages  553 
44,  39,  54,  53). 

3.  Write  these  verbs  in  the  negative  and  interrogative. 

4.  Give  the  pres.  part.,  and  past  part,  of  all  verbs  in  the 
lesson. 

Theme. 

a)  1.  You  will  set  out  on  your  journey  when  the  vaca- 
tion has  begun.  2.  Will  you  depart  with  the  happiness 
of  a  school-boy  ?  3.  Your  nerves  will  be  weary  after  you 
have  travelled  several  d'ays.  4.  Will  you  go  by  stage 
or  by  railway  ?  5.  Octave  Feuillet  had  two  companions, 


30  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

how  many  will  you  have  ?     6.   After  you  have  had  unex- 
pected adventures,  you  will  be  glad  to  lie  down  to  rest. 

7.  Octave  Feuillet  slept  at  the  village-inn,  will  you  do  so  ? 

8.  At  each  relay  he  wrote  to  his  wife.     9.    I  shall  expect 
letters    from  you.     10.   Will  your  letters  be  as  full  of  a 
child-like  spirit  as  were  those  of  the  celebrated  Frenchman  ? 

b)  1.  Will  you  be  much  amused  when  you  have  started 
on  your  journey?  2.  You  will  have  no  hills  to  climb, 
and  you  will  not  sing  your  gay  songs.  3.  You  will  write 
us  of  the  villages,  will  you  not  ?  4.  You  will  not  find  as 
much  amusement  as  if  you  had  gone  in  a  post-chaise. 
5.  George  will  start  the  day  after  you.  6.  You  will 
receive  him  cordially  when  he  arrives.  7.  That  will  con- 
sole him  for  the  delay.  8.  If  you  could  go  together  you 
would  have  some  delightful  moments  on  the  way.  9.  They 
would  say  you  were  veritable  school-boys,  with  all  their 
whims.  10.  Once  both  of  you  were  full  of  spirit,  ready 
for  any  adventure. 

La  vie  est  une  pensee  de  jeunesse  exe'cute'e  par  Page  mur. 

[AUGUSTE    COMTE.] 


CHAPITRE    XII. 

Se  venger  c'est  faire  le  mal ;  se  livrer  c'est  Pautoriser. 
II  faudra  trouver  le  moyen  de  reprimer  sans  punir  et  de 
combattre  avec  des  armes  qui  ne  blessent  point.  Tu  souris  ? 
eh  bien,  ces  armes  sont  trouvees  et  il  n'est  besoin  que  d'en 
connaitre  1'usage  :  c'est  la  discussion  libre  qui  eclaire  les 
esprits,  c'est  la  force  de  ropinion  qui  dejoue  les  complots, 
c'est  la  sagesse  et  la  justice  qui  regnent  au  fond  du  coeur 
de  rhomme.  Forces  d'attendre,  atteiidons  !  Puissent  les 
Jacobins  en  tombant  ne  pas  emporter  la  Eepublique.  Mais 
si  cela  arrive  ne  nous  etonnons  pas  !  II  faudra,  pour  qu'elle 
renaisse  qu'elle  soit  humaine  avant  tout,  et  que  le  meurtre 


EXERCISES.  .        31 

soit  devenu  un  crime  aux  yeux  de  tons  les  homines.  II 
faudra  qu'elle  devienne,  ce  qu'elle  doit  etre,  une  mere  qui 
rassemble  ses  enfants  dans  ses  bras,  et  leur  donne  a  tons  le 
bonheur  et  la  securite. 

Exercice. 

c)  1.  Se  venger  est-ce  faire  le  mal?  2.  Qu'est-ce  qui 
est  autoriser  le  mal  ?  3.  Quel  moyen  f audra-t-il  trouver  ? 
4.  Avec  quelles  armes  f  audra-t-il  combattre?  5.  Cette 
idee  vous  fait-elle  sourire?  6.  Ces  armes  sont-elles  im- 
possibles a  trouver  ?  7.  Qu'est-il  necessaire  de  connaitre  ? 
8.  Qu'est-ce  qui  eclaire  les  esprits  ?  9.  Qu'est-ce  qui  de- 
joue  les  complots?  10.  Quelles  sont  les  armes  dont  il 
f aut  connaitre  Pusage  ? 

b)  1.  Croyez-vous  que  la  sagesse  et  la  justice  regnent 
toujours  sur  Phomme?  2.  Croyez-vous  que  les  violences 
des  Jacobins  emportent  la  Eepublique  ?  3.  Si  cela  arrive, 
croyez-vous  que  leur  chute  etonne  le  monde  ?  4.  Que 
faut-il  pour  que  la  Republique  renaisse?  5.  Que  faut-il 
que  le  meurtre  soit  devenu?  6.  Que  faut-il  que  la  Kepu- 
blique  devienne  ?  7.  Que  faut-il  que  la  Eepublique  donne 
a  tous  ses  enfants  ?  8.  Si  nous  y  sommes  forces  que  faut- 
il  que  nous  fassions  ?  9.  Croyez-vous  que  la  libre  discus- 
sion puisse  eclairer  tous  les  esprits?  10.  Croyez-vous  que 
les  combats  avec  des  armes  qui  blessent,  cessent  partout? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Give  the  present  and  past  participles  of  the  following 
verbs  :  se  venger,  faire,  se  livrer,  falloir,  combattre^  sourire^ 
connaitre)  devenir,  tomber  (pages  44,  54,  60,  111,  57,  52,  58). 

2.  Conjugate  the  present  subj.  and  perfect  subj.  of  :  se 
venger,  falloir,  renaitre  (page  56),  rassembler,  devenir, 
battre,  sourire,  attend?^. 

3.  Conjugate  these  verbs  in  the  negative. 


32  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

4.    Conjugate  falloir  in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive 
(see  page  111). 

Theme. 

a)  1.    To  take  revenge  is  to  do  evil.     2.    One  should  find 
the  means  of  repressing  without  punishing.     3.    It  is  better 
to  fight  with  arms  which  do  not  wound.     4.    Do  you  smile 
at  my  words  ?     5.    Well,  such  arms  can  be  found.     6.    It 
is  only  necessary  to  learn  their  use.     7.  Free  discussion  en- 
lightens the  mind.     8.  The  power  of  public  opinion  baffles 
the  deepest  plots  of  evil  men.    9.  May  it  ever  do  it !    10.  It 
is  impossible  that  injustice  should  rule  in  the  hearts  of  all 
men.     11.    It  was  necessary  that  the  Jacobins  should  fall. 

b)  1.    It  was  not  necessary  that  they  should  bear  away 
with  them  the  great  Republic.     2.    Means  should  be  found 
to    repress    evil.     3.    In    order    to   do   that,  one   must    be 
humane.      4.    Wisdom    and    justice    should    reign    in   the 
heart.     5.    The  Republic  must  be  a  mother  gathering  her 
children  in  her  arms,  and  giving  them  security  and  happi- 
ness.    6.    Although   evil  may  exist  as  long  as  the  world 
endures,  be  courageous,  and  fight  it  with  gentle  weapons. 
7.    To  wait  may  become  a  crime.     8.    I  am  astonished  that 
so  many  remain  indifferent.     9.    Demand  that  the  minds 
of  men  be  enlightened.     10.    When  that  comes,  you  will 
not  be  astonished  at  the  result. 

Ce  siecle  est  grand  et  fort.     Un  noble  instinct  le  mene. 

Partout  on  voit  marcher  Pide'e  en  mission ; 

Et  le  bruit  du  travail,  plein  de  parole  humaine, 

Se  mele  au  bruit  divin  de  la  creation. 

[VICTOR  HUGO.] 


CHAPITRE    XIII. 

Le  marechal  Davout,  de  peur  que  ses  jeunes  troupes  ne 
se  laissassent  aller  au  desordre  et  au  pillage,  avait  defendu 
que  les  soldats  sortisseiit  du  camp  sans  sa  permission  j 


EXERCISES.  33 

il  avait  meme  interdit  le  maraudage  sous  peine  de  mort. 
Un  jour,  en  se  promenant,  il  apergut  dans  un  champ,  un 
soldat  qui  avait  une  singuliere  tournure.  C'etait  un  dra- 
gon qui  avait  lie  autour  de  sa  ceinture  un  mouton  qu'il 
venait  de  voler.  Le  marechal,  furieux  de  ce  que  ses  ordres 
fussent  ainsi  meconnus,  se  fit  ameiier  le  coupable  et,  avant 
que  le  soldat  put  s'excuser,  lui  annonqa  la  peine  qui 
1'attendait.  Le  pauvre  mouton  qui  belait  d'une  maniere 
lamentable,  couvrait  de  sa  voix  Padmonestation.  Tout 
a  coup  le  dragon,  craignant  sans  doute  que  son  sort  ne  fut 
aggrave  par  cet  etrange  plaidoyer,  lui  frappa  sur  la  tete  : 
"  Paix,  mouton,  s?ecria-t-il,  laisse  parler  le  marechal ! "  Le 
marechal  rit,  pour  la  premiere  fois  peut-etre  de  sa  vie, 
et  Ta-propos  de  Faccuse  emp£cha  qu'il  ne  fut  mis  en 
jugement. 

JExereice. 

a)  1.  Que  craignait  le  marechal  Davout  ?  2.  Qu?avait-il 
defendu?  3.  Qu'avait-il  interdit  sous  peine  de  mort? 
4.  Pourquoi  le  marechal  etait-il  si  severe?  5.  Qui  apergut- 
il  un  jour  en  se  promenant  ?  6.  Que  remarqua-t-il  ? 

7.  Qu?est-ce   que  le   dragon  avait  lie  autour  de    sa  cein- 
ture ?    8.    Comment  le  dragon  s'etait-il  procure  le  mouton  ? 
9.    Pourquoi  le  marechal  etait-il  furieux?     10.    Quel  ordre 
donna-t-il  ? 

5)  1.  Le  marechal  permit-il  au  dragon  de  s'excuser  ? 
2.  Qu'annonga-t-il  au  soldat?  3.  Que  faisait  entre-temps 
le  mouton?  4.  Que  craignit  alors  le  dragon?  5.  Que 
voulait-il  que  le  mouton  fit?  6.  Le  marechal  Davout 
etait-il  enclin  a  rire  ?  7.  Que  fit-il  en  cette  circonstance  ? 

8.  Qu'est-ce   qui   empecha   que  le  dragon  ne  fut  mis   en 
jugement?     9.    Le  maraudage  des  soldats  est-il  cruel  pour 
les    campagnards?     10.   Croyez-vous   que  le   marechal    ait 
pense  aux  souffrances  des  campagnards  ? 


34  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  in  the  subjunctive  the  verbs  se  laisser,  sor- 
tir,  etre  meeonnu,  pouvoir,  etre  aggrave,  etre  mis  (pages  44, 
57,  56,  59). 

2.  Conjugate  these  verbs  in  the  negative. 

3.  Conjugate  in  the  pluperfect  ind.  defend/re,  inter  dire. 
Her  (in  the  affirmative,  negative,  and  interrogative)  (pages 
44,  53). 

4.  Conjugate  in  the  same  forms  the  past  def .  of  se  faire, 
annoncer,  f rapper,  s*  eerier,  rire,  empecher  (pages  54,  44,  57). 

5.  Give  the  imperative  of  laisser,  craindre,  faire,  mettre, 
in  the  affirmative  and  negative  (pages  44,  53,  54,  55). 

Theme. 

a)  1.    Marshal  Davout   feared  that  his  young  soldiers 
would  be  led  to  pillage  the   country  around  their  camp. 

2.  He  forbade  the  soldiers  to  leave  the  camp.     3.    He  for- 
bade marauding  under  pain  of  death.     4.    One  day  he  saw 
one  of  his   dragoons  walking  in  a  field.     5.    The  soldier 
had  a  remarkable  figure.     6.    He  had  just  stolen  a  sheep 
and  bound  it  about  his  waist.     7.  The  Marshal  was  furious 
because  his  orders  had  been  ignored.     8.    He  ordered  the 
culprit  to  be  brought  before  him.     9.    The  soldier  was  not 
able  to  excuse  himself.     10.    Before  he  could  speak,  the 
Marshal  informed  him  of  the  punishment  which  awaited 
him. 

b)  1.    The  poor  sheep  began  to  bleat  in  a  doleful  man- 
ner.    2.    Its  bleating  drowned  the  voice  of  the  Marshal. 

3.  Suddenly  the  dragoon  struck  the  animal  on  the  head. 

4.  He  commanded  the  miserable  sheep  to  let  the  Marshal 
speak.     5.    The   Marshal  was  very  much  amused  at  the 
words  of  the   accused.      6.    He  laughed,  perhaps  for  the 
first  time  in  his  life.    7.    The  wit  of  the  dragoon  prevented 


EXERCISES.  35 

him  from  being  punished.  8.  Do  you  believe  that  the 
soldiers  thought  it  cruel  to  take  sheep  from  the  country- 
people  ?  9.  Marshal  Davout  was  not  inclined  to  laugh 
when  his  orders  were  disobeyed.  10.  Do  you  believe  in 
obeying  orders  ? 

Tout  citoyen  est  redevable  a  sa  patrie  de  ses  talents  et  de  la  maniere 
de  les  employer.     [D'ALEMBERT.] 


CHAPITRE   XIV. 
PENS&ES  D'UN  PERSAN  SUR  PARIS. 

Je  ne  me  croyais  pas  un  homme  si  curieux  et  si  rare,  et 
je  ne  me  serais  jamais  imagine  que  je  dusse  troubler  le  repos 
d'une  grande  ville<ou  je  n'etais  point  connu.  Cela  me  fit 
resoudre  a  quitter  Inhabit  persan  et  a  en  endosser  un  a 
Peuropeenne,  pour  voir  s'il  resterait  encore  dans  ma  phy- 
sionomie  quelque  chose  d'admirable.  Get  essai  me  fit 
connaitre  ce  que  je  valais  reellement.  Libre  de  tous  les 
ornements  etrangers,  je  me  vis  apprecie  au  plus  juste. 
J'eus  sujet  de  me  plaindre  de  mon  tailleur  qui  me  fit 
perdre,  en  un  instant,  Inattention,  et  Pestime  publiques. 
J'entrai  tout  a  coup  dans  un  neant  affreux.  Je  demeurais 
quelquefois  une  heure  dans  une  compagnie  sans  qu'on 
m'eut  regarde  et  qu'on  m'eut  niis  en  occasion  d'ouvrir  la 
bonche.  [MONTESQUIEU.] 

%  Exercice. 

a)  1.  Le  Persan  de  Montesquieu  se  croyait-il  curieux? 
2.  Que  ne  se  serait-il  jamais  imagine  ?  3.  Quelle  est  la 
grande  ville  ou  le  Persan  etait  inconnu  ?  4.  Quelle  resolu- 
tion lui  fit  prendre  la  curiosite  des  Parisians  ?  5.  Quel 
habit  endossa  notre  Persan  ?  6.  Que  voulait-il  voir  ? 


36  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

7.  Que  lui  fit  connaitre  cet  essai  ?  8.  De  quoi  se  debaras- 
sa-t-il  ?  9.  Comment  se  vit-il  apprecie  alors  ?  10.  De 
qui  eut-il  sujet  de  se  plaindre  ? 

b)  1.  Pourquoi  croyez-vous  qu'il  avait  sujet  de  se  plaindre? 

2.  Si  le  Persaii  avait  eu  du  merite  fut-il  entre  dans  le  neant ? 

3.  Que  lui  arrivait-il  quelquefois  en  compagnie  ?     4.    Lui 
eut-on  donne  P occasion  d'ouvrir  la  bouche,  s'il  avait  garde 
son  habit  persan  ?    5.    Les  ornements  devraient-il  nous  atti- 
rer  Tattention  d'autrui  ?    6.   Serait-il  juste  qu'ils  devinssent 
la  mesure  de  notre  respect?     7.    Croyez-vous  que  les  orne- 
ments puissent  rien  changer  a  la  physionomie  ?     8.    Croyez- 
vous  que  les  homm^s  s'imaginent  jamais  etre  curieux  ou 
singuliers  ?     9.    Ne  s'imaginent-ils  pas  souvent  etre  rares  ? 
10.    Croyez-vous    que   le    Persan    de   Montesquieu   ait   eu 

mauvaise  opinion  de  lui-meme  ? 

i 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  in  the   subjunctive  the  verbs  devoir,  con- 
naitre, faire,    endosser,  perdre,   mettre   (pages   44,   50,   52, 
54,  55). 

2.  Conjugate  in  the  affirmative,  negative,  and  interroga- 
tive of  the  imp.  ind.  :  croire,  valoir,  demeurer  (pages   53, 

58,  44). 

3.  Conjugate  in  the  past.  def.  and  conditional  the  verbs 
faire,  voir,  avoir,  entrer,  savoir,  connaitre,  mettre  (pages  54, 

59,  39,  44,  57,  52,  55). 

4.  Write  the  feminine  and  plural  of  the  adjectives  in 
the  lesson  (pages  10-12). 

5.  Study  the  possessive  adjectives  (page  16). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Do  you  believe  yourself  to  be  a  strange  and  won- 
derful man?  2.  The  Persians  are  a  curious  and  interest- 
ing people.  3.  Have  you  ever  thought  that  you  might 


EXERCISES.  37 

trouble  the  peace  of  any  one  ?  4.  Why  did  the  Persian 
abandon  his  native  costume  ?  5.  In  what  style  do  you  pre- 
fer to  have  your  coat?  6.  In  the  English  or  Persian 
style?  7.  The  ladies  like  to  have  their  toilettes  in  the 
Parisian  style.  8.  If  you  should  go  to  Paris,  would  it  be 
necessary  for  you  to  dress  in  the  Parisian  style  ?  9.  I  doubt 
if  this  story  would  be  a  lesson  to  warn  you  not  to  change 
your  coat,  when  you  change  your  habitation.  10.  The 
Persian  demanded  that  his  true  value  should  be  re- 
cognized. 

6)  1.  He  was  not  satisfied  with  the  trial.  2.  He  com- 
plained of  his  tailor  who  had  caused  him  to  lose  the  ad- 
miration of  the  crowd.  3.  He  often  remained  silent  a  long 
time,  without  anyone  noticing  him,  or  giving  him  an  op- 
portunity to  speak.  4.  Do  you  go  into  society  in  order  to 
speak?  5.  He  wished  that  they  should  look  at  him. 
6.  I  fear  that  he  went  away  from  Paris  quite  unhappy 
over  the  result.  7.  Everybody  desires  the  esteem  of 
others.  8.  Do  you  believe  that  the  Persian  will  return  to 
Paris  ?  9.  I  do  not  wish  that  you  should  lose  public  at- 
tention and  esteem.  10.  I  was  astonished  to  find  my  advice 
completely  set  at  naught  (inettre  de  cote). 

Qui  ne  vit  que  pour  soi,  vit  pour  bien  peu  de  chose. 

[CHARLES  Louis  MOLLEVANT.] 


CHAPITRE   XV. 
LE  CHEVAL. 

La  plus  noble  conquete  que  Fhomme  ait  jamais  faite  est 
celle  de  ce  fier  et  fougueux  animal  qui  partage  avec  lui  les 
fatigues  de  la  guerre  et  la  gloire  des  combats  :  aussi  intre- 
pide  que  son  maitre,  le  cheval  voit  le  peril  et  Taffronte ;  il 
se  fait  au  bruit  des  armes,  il  Taime,  il  le  cherche  et  s'anime 


38  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

de  la  meme  ardeur.  II  partage  aussi  ses  plaisirs  :  a  la 
chasse,  aux  tournois,  a  la  course,  il  brille,  il  etincelle. 
Mais,  docile  autant  que  courageux,  il  ne  se  laisse  point 
emporter  a  son  feu,  il  sait  reprimer  ses  mouvements  :  11011 
seulement  il  flech.it  sous  la  main  de  celui  qui  le  guide,  mais 
il  semble  consulter  ses  desirs  ;  et  obeissant  toujours  aux 
impressions  qu'il  en  regoit,  il  se  precipite,  se  modere  ou 
s'arrete,  et  n'agit  que  pour  j  satisfaire.  [ 


Exercice. 

a)  1.    Quelle  est  la  plus  noble  conquete   de  Fhomme? 
2.    Qu?est-ce  que  le  cheval  partage  avec  I'homme  ?     3.    Le 
cheval  est-il  intrepide?     4.    Qu'est-ce  que  le  cheval  voit? 
5.    Qu?est-ce  qu'il  affronte  ?     6.    A  quoi  se  f  ait-il  ?     7.   De 
quelle  ardeur  s'anime-t-il  ?     8.   Quels  sont  les  plaisirs  qu'il 
partage  ?     9.    Pourquoi  ne  se  laisse-t-il  pas  emporter  a  son 
ardeur  ?     10.    Quels  desirs  semble-t-il  consulter  ? 

b)  1.    A  quelles  impressions  obeit  le  cheval  ?     2.    Pour- 
quoi se  precipite-t-il  ou  se  modere-t-il  ?    3.  Pourquoi  agit-il? 
4.    La  conquete   d?un  animal  utile  est-elle  plus  glorieuse 
qu'une  sanglante  victoire  ?     5.    Les  conquetes  de  1'intelli- 
gence  ne  sont-elles  pas  plus  belles  que  celles  de  la  force 
brutale?     6.    Pourquoi  le  sont-elles?     7.    Ne  croyez-vous 
pas  que  Y  intelligence  soit  une  force  qui  domine  la  matiere  ? 
8.  Qui  faut-il  honorer  davantage,  les  heros  de  Intelligence 
ou  les  guerriers  ?     9.    Est-ce  la  ce  que  font  les  hommes  ? 
10.    Les  hommes  ne  sont-ils  pas  inconsequents  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  sefaire,  se 
laisser,  Jlechir,  obeir,  recevoir,  s'arreter,  agir  (pages  54,  44,  60). 

2.  Compare   the   adjectives  in  the  lesson  by  plus  and 
moins  (page  13). 

3.  Write  the  tenses  of  the  ind.  in  the  interrog.  -negative. 


EXERCISES.  39 

4.  Study  the  difference  between  the  interrogative  ad- 
jective and  the  interrogative  pronoun,  as  shown  in  the 
exercise. 

Theme. 

a)  1.  What  is  the  most  noble  conquest  which  man  has 
ever  made  ?  2.  Do  you  agree  with  Buffon  in  regard  to  the 
horse  ?  3.  I  wish  some  one  would  give  me  a  fierce  and 
spirited  horse.  4.  Horses  have  shown  themselves  as  in- 
trepid as  their  masters  ?  5.  The  horse  sees  the  peril,  and 
faces  it  courageously.  6.  He  loves  the  clash  of  arms,  and 
is  animated  with  the  ardor  of  the  combat.  7.  Do  you 
doubt  that  he  shares  the  pleasure  of  his  master  ?  8.  See 
him  in  the  chase,  at  a  tournament,  or  on  the  race-course  ! 

9.  He  is  all  fire,  and  spirit,  without  losing  his  docility. 

10.  He  loves  the  hand  that  guides  him  and  submits  to  it. 
&)    1.    He  seems  to  consult  the  desire  of  his  master  ? 

2.  He  obeys  the  one  from  whom  he  receives  his  impres- 
sions. 3.  He  is  the  most  faithful  of  all  the  animals  which 
man  has  domesticated.  4.  Which  should  be  more  honored, 
intelligence  or  force  ?  5.  I  was  astonished  to  hear  you  say 
that  you  admired  force.  6.  I  shall  wait  until  you  change 
your  opinion.  7.  Your  uncle  will  give  you  a  horse,  so  that 
you  may  learn  its  value.  8.  The  soldiers  kept  their 
horses,  although  the  war  was  over.  9.  Do  you  think 
horses  are  necessary  for  us.  10.  It  is  enough  that  you 
say  so,  for  me  to  believe  it. 

O  Corse  a  cheveux  plats  !  que  ta  France  e'tait  belle 

Au  grand  soleil  de  messidor  ! 
C' e'tait  une  cavale  indomptable  et  rebelle, 

Sans  frein  d'acier  ni  renes  d'or  ; 
Une  jument  sauvage  a  la  croupe  rustique, 

Fumante  encor  du  sang  des  rois, 
Mais  fiere,  et  d'un  pied  fort  heurtant  le  sol  antique, 

Libre  pour  la  premiere  f  ois. 

[AUGUSTE  BARBIER.] 


40  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPITRE    XVI. 

MlRABEATJ. 

Mirabeau  etait  un  homme  qui  n'attendait  qu'une  occa- 
sion pour  etre  grand.  Dans  la  decrepitude  de  la  monar- 
chic, il  s'etait  fait  remarquer  par  la  vehemence  de  ses 
passions,  une  vie  passee  a  commettre  des  desordres  et  a  en 
souffrir.  A  sa  prodigieuse  activite  il  fallait  de  1'emploi ; 
la  revolution  lui  en  donna.  Habitue  a  la  lutte  contre  le 
despotisme,  irrite  des  mepris  d'une  noblesse  qui  ne  le 
valait  pas,  et  qui  le  rej etait  de  son  sein;  habile,  audacieux, 
eloquent,  Mirabeau  sentit  que  la  revolution  serait  son 
ceuvre  et  sa  vie.  II  repondit  aux  principaux  besoins  de 
son  epoque.  Sa  pensee,  sa  voix,  son  action  etaient  celles 
d'un  tribun.  Dans  les  circonstances  perilleuses  il  avait 
1'entrainement  qui  maitrise  une  assemblee ;  d'un  mot  il 
abaissait  les  ambitions  et  deconcertait  les  rivalites.  II 
obtint  bien  vite  une  popularite  immense,  qu'il  conserva 
jusqu'au  bout.  [FRANCOIS  AUGUSTE  MIGNET.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Connaissez-vous  Mirabeau  le  grand  orateur  de  la 
Eevolution  ?  2.  Appartenait-il  a  la  noblesse  ?  3.  Quelle 
occasion  attendait-il  ?  4.  Par  quoi  s'etait-il  fait  remar- 
quer ?  5.  A  quoi  avait-il  passe  sa  vie  ?  6.  A  quoi 
fallait-il  de  Temploi  ?  7.  Qu?est-ce  qui  lui  en  donna? 
8.  A  quoi  etait-il  habitue?  9.  De  quoi  etait-il  irrite? 
10.  Mirabeau  valait-il  mieux  que  la  noblesse  de  son  temps  ? 

#)  1.  Quelle  opinion  la  noblesse  avait-elle  de  Mirabeau? 
2.  Que  sentit  Mirabeau?  3  A  quels  besoins  repondit-il? 
4.  Comment  maitrisait-il  une  assemblee?  5.  Comment 
deconcertait-il  les  rivalites?  6.  Jusqu'a  quand  conser^ 
va-t-il  sa  popularite?  7  A  quelle  periode  de  la  Eevolu- 


EXERCISES.  41 

tion  parut  Mirabeau?  8.  Avait-il  commence  par  hitter 
centre  le  despotisme  de  son  pere  ?  9.  Sa  vie  et  son  coeur 
avaient-ils  ete  regies  ?  10.  Croyez-vous  qu'il  eut  continue 
a  dominer  la  Revolution  s'il  avait  vecu  plus  longtemps  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Write  the  verbs  in  the  lesson,  in  the  interrogative, 
and  negative-interrogative. 

2.  Give  the  infinitives  and  present  participles  of  all  the 
past  participles. 

3.  Conjugate  the  verbs  valoir,  repondre,  sentir,  obtenir, 
in  all  the  modes  and  tenses  (pages  58,  44,  57,  58). 

4.  Study  the  rules  for  the  use  of   the  past  participle 
(pages  88-91). 

Theme. 

a)  1.    Mirabeau  was  one  of  the  greatest  orators  of  the 
Revolution.  •  2.    During  the  decline  of  the   monarchy  he 
made   himself   known   by  a  disorderly  life.      3.    Having 
a  prodigious  activity  of  mind,  employment  was  necessary 
for  him.     4.    The  Revolution  provided  it  for  him.     5.    He 
did  not  esteem  the  nobility,  and  was  rejected  by  them. 
6.    Ruled  by  his  passions,  he  suffered  from  them.     7.    Irri- 
tated by  the  scorn  of  the  nobility  he  only  waited  until  his 
opportunity  came.     8.    He  felt  that  the  Revolution  would 
be  his  life.     9.    His  epoch  had  need  of  a  man  so  clever,  so 
audacious,  and  so  eloquent.      10.    In  thought,  voice,  and 
action  he  was  fitted  for  the  platform. 

b)  1.    Do  you  admire  a  man  like  Mirabeau  ?     2.    Would 
you  have  wished  to  see  him,  if  you  had  been  in  Paris? 
3.    I  am  afraid  that  the  perils  of  that  time  would  have 
prevented  you  from  going  there.     4.    In  the  perilous  cir- 
cumstances which  surrounded  Mirabeau  he  showed  great 
courage.     5.    He  quickly  obtained  an  immense  popularity. 


42  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

6.  This  popularity  lie  preserved  to  the  end.  7.  He  ruled 
the  Assembly  by  his  ardent  enthusiasm.  8.  Do  you 
believe  our  epoch  has  need  of  such  an  orator?  -9.  Do  you 
wish  that  such  a  man  should  rule  this  Eepublic  ?  10.  Is 
it  necessary  to  have  revolutions  in  order  to  have  great 
orators  ? 

Lorsque  la  Revolution  s'egarait,  avec  ses  ancres  rompues  et  ses 
voiles  e'chevele'es,  sur  une  mer  sem^e  de  rochers  et  d'orages,  Mirabeau, 
debout,  &  Pavant  du  navire,  de"fiait  les  Eclats  de  la  foudre,  et,  ras- 
surant  les  passagers  tremblants,  il  elevait  au  milieu  d'eux  sa  voix 
prophetique,  et  il  leur  indiquait  du  doigt  les  terres  promises  de  la 
liberte.  [Louis  DE  CORMENIN.] 


CHAPITRE   XVII. 
LE  PETIT  CHAPERON  ROUGE. 

Qui  de  nous  ne  se  rappelle  ce  conte  charmant  et  terrible 
qui  a  berce  notre  enfance  ?  Quel  drame  plein  d'interet ! 
Quelle  leqon  !  et  comme  elle  nous  profite  peu  !  Et  cepen- 
dant,  comme  nous  avons  pleure  au  recit  de  ton  infortune, 
pauvre  petit  Chaperon  Rouge  !  tu  marchais  gaiement  au 
soleil,  ecoutant  les  oiseaux  du  ciel  qui  chantaient  sur  ta 
tete  ;  ta  route  etait  toute  tracee  ;  tu  devais  aller  chez  ta 
grand'mere.  Mais  voila  qu'une  fleur  brille  dans  la  prairie, 
voila  qu'un  papillon  aux  ailes  bleues  vole.  Tu  suis  etourdi- 
ment  le  papillon,  tu  vas  cueillir  la  fleur ;  le  gazon  est  si 
moelleux,  si  vert ;  le  ruisseau  qui  murmure  a  une  si  douce 
voix,  et  Theure  passe  si  vite  !  Et  quand  enfin  a  travers 
ces  pres  fleuris,  ces  bois  harmonieux,  tu  arrives  au  terme  de 
ta  course,  tu  trouves  non  plus  la  grand'mere  indulgente  et 
bonne,  mais  les  yeux  flamboyants  et  la  grande  bouche  du 
loup  qui  te  devore.  Et  vous  appelez  cela  un  conte.  Mais, 
c'est  une  histoire,  et  la  plus  vraie  des  histoires.  [Louis 
JOURDAN.] 


EXERCISES.  43 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Vous  rappelez-vous  les  contes  qui  ont  berce  votre 
enfance  ?     2.    Aimiez-vous  les  contes   de  ma  mere  1'Oie, 
quand  vous  etiez  enfant?      3.    Que  pensez-vous  du  conte 
intitule  "  Le  petit  Chaperon  Rouge "  ?     4.    Les  contes  con- 
tiennent-ils  une  legon  ?     5.    Profitons-nous  souvent  de  ces 
leqons  ?      6.    Avez-vous  pleure  au  recit  de  Tinfortune  du 
petit  Chaperon  Rouge  ?     7.    Comment  marchait  la  petite 
fille  ?     8.   Qu'ecoutait-elle  ?     9.  Ou  chantaient  les  oiseaux  ? 
10.    Ou  devait  aller  le  petit  Chaperon  Eouge  ? 

b)  1.    Que  vit  la  petite  fille  dans  la  prairie  ?     2.    Qu'y 
fit-elle?      3.    Ou   se    coucha-t-elle  ?      4.    Qu'ecouta-t-elle  ? 
5.    Trouva-t-elle  Pheure  agreable  ?     6.    Le  temps  passa-t-il 
vite  pour  elle  ?     7.    Le  temps  passe-t-il  vite   pour   nous 
quand  nous  nous  amusons  ?     8.    Ne  passe-t-il  pas  tout  aussi 
vite  quand  nous  sommes  bien  occupes  ?      9.    Croyez-vous 
qu'une   vie   toute  d? amusements  soit  agreable  ?      10.    Ne 
pensez-vous  pas  que  de  nombreuses  deceptions  attendent 
celui  qui  ne  sait  pas  s'occuper  serieusement  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Give  the  interrogative  adjectives  in  the  lesson,  and 
the  rule  for  their  agreement  (see  adjectives). 

2.  Conjugate  the  verbs  of  the  lesson  in  the  tenses  given. 

3.  Write  the  masculine,  feminine,  singular  and  plural  of 
all  the  adjectives,  and  give  the  rules  (pages  10-12). 

4.  Write  the  verbs  of  the  lesson  in  the  interrogative. 
(For  interrogative  pronoun,  page  31.) 

Theme. 

a)  1.  What  stories  of  your  childhood  do  you  recall. 
2.  The  story  of  Little  Red  Eiding-hood  was  the  first  told 
to  you,  my  daughter.  3.  What  a  charming  tale  !  4.  What 


44  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

a  sad  tale  for  children  !  5.  Did  you  exclaim  :  "What  a  gay 
child!"?  6.  What  a  beautiful  blue-winged  butterfly  !  7.  I 
like  the  sweet  murmur  of  the  brooks.  8.  Children  like  to 
run  about  the  flowery  meadows.  9.  What  a  kind  and  in- 
dulgent grandmother  you  have,  my  child !  10.  Do  you 
like  to  walk  through  the  fields  to  visit  your  dear  grand- 
mother ? 

b)  1.  When  at  last  you  come  to  the  end  of  your  walk, 
what  do  you  find?  2.  The  grandmamma  with  gentle 
eyes,  or  a  wolf  ?  3.  Wrhat  a  large  mouth  the  wolf  has  ! 
4.  Would  his  flaming  eyes  frighten  you  ?  5.  Would  you 
wish  yourself  again  in  the  green  meadows?  6.  How 
soft  the  sward  was  !  7.  How  the  birds  sang !  8.  The 
story  you  have  read  is  sad.  9.  Is  it  a  true  story,  my 
son  ?  10.  Would  you  cry,  little  one,  if  you  should 
see  a  wolf  ? 

Lorsque  P  enfant  parait,  le  cercle  de  famille 
Applaudit  a  grands  cris  ;  son  doux  regard  qui  brille 

Fait  briller  tous  les  yeux  ; 

Et  les  plus  tristes  fronts,  les  plus  scuttle's  peut-etre, 
Se  de'rident  soudain  a  voir  1'enfant  paraitre, 

Innocent  et  joyeux. 

[VICTOR  HUGO.] 


CHAPITRE    XVIII. 

ASPECT  DBS  CIEUX  ^TOIL^S. 

Quand  on  songe  an  nombre  des  etoiles,  aux  distances  qui 
les  separent  les  unes  des  autres,  a  Petendue  des  nebuleuses 
et  a  leur  eloignement  reciproque ;  quand  on  essaie  de  voir 
clair  dans  cette  immensite  innommee ;  quand,  par  dela  les 
mondes,  on  retrouve  sans  cesse  d? autres  mondes,  et  qu'au 
dela  de  ceux-ci  de  nouvelles  creations  s'ajoutent  sans  fin 
aux  prec^dentes  ;  quand  devant  nous,  atomes,  on  voit 


EXERCISES.  45 

Pinfini  s'entrouvrir  .  .  .,  on  sent  frissonner  son  ame  an 
fond  de  Petre,  et  l?on  se  demande  avec  une  curiosite  naive 
et  terrifiee,  ce  que  c'est  qu'un  tel  univers  qui  grandit  a 
mesure  que  nos  conceptions  s'etendent  et  qui  lors  meme 
que  nous  epuiserions  toute  la  serie  des  nombres  pour 
exprimer  sa  grandeur,  se  trouverait  encore  infiniment 
au-dessus,  et  envelopperait  nos  approximations  tout  en- 
tieres,  comme  Pocean  fait  d'un  grain  de  sable  qui  tombe. 
[CAMILLE  FLAMMABION.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    N'aimez-vous    pas    Paspect    des    cieux    etoiles  ? 
2.  Avez-vous  jamais  songe  au  nombre  des  etoiles?   3.  Avez- 
vous  pense  aux  prodigieuses  distances  qui  les  separent  les 
unes    des    autoes  ?      4.    Avez-vous    essaye    de    voir    clair 
dans  rimmensite  de  1'espace  ?      5.    Que  trouvez-vous  par 
dela  les  mondes  ?      6.    Que  sommes-nous  en  comparaison 
de   1'univers  ?       7.    Que    voyons-nous    s'entrouvrir    devant 
nous  ?    8.    Que  sentons-nous  a  la  contemplation  de  Pinfini  ? 
9.    Quelle  question  se  fait-on?      10.    Comment  se  fait-on 
cette  question? 

b)  1.    Quand  Punivers  grandit-il  a  nos  yeux  ?     2.    Com- 
ment   nous     efforqons-nous    d'exprimer    la    grandeur    de 
Punivers?     3.    Pouvons-nous  exprimer  cette  grandeur  en 
epuisaiit    la    serie    des    nombres  ?      4.    Si   vous    essayiez, 
verriez-vous  clair  dans  Pimmensite  ?      5.    Arriveriez-vous 
a   comprendre    ce    que    c'est    que    Punivers  ?      6.    Et   les 
etoiles,   comprenez-vous   a  quelle   distance   elles    sont   de 
nous  ?     7.    Croyez-vous  que  les  mondes  dans  Pespace  soient 
habites?     8.    Croyez-vous  qu'il   soit  possible  un   jour    de 
communiquer    avec    leurs    habitants  ?     9.    Seriez-vous    de- 
sireux  de   connaitre  les   habitants   de  Mars?      10.    Est-il 
possible  que  les  espaces  infinis  soient  a  jamais  silencieux? 


46  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Grammaire. 

1.  What  conjunctions  in  the  lessons  are  followed  by  the 
indicative  ? 

2.  What  conjunctions  in  the  lessons  are  followed  by  the 
subjunctive  ? 

3.  Study  rules  for  the  use  of  on  (page  34). 

4.  Study  rules  for  agreement  of  tout  (page  18). 

5.  Conjugate  the  reflexive  verbs  in  the  lesson. 

Theme. 

a)  1.    The  distance  which  separates  the  stars  from  one 
another  is  immense.     2.   When  did  you  try  to  look  at  the 
starry  heavens?     3.    Could  you  see  clearly  into  that  name- 
less '  space  ?     4.    It  is  then  that  we  poor  atoms  have  a 
glimpse  of  the   infinite.      5.    Did  you  ever   ask  yourself, 
what  is  this  universe  which  grows  according  as  our  con- 
ceptions extend?     6.   We  find  new  creations  without  end, 
added  to  the  old  ones.     7.    When  we  study  these  worlds 
beyond  worlds,  our  souls  are  touched  to  the  depths  of  our 
being.     8.    We  exhaust  numbers  and  words   in  trying  to 
express  the  grandeur  of  the  universe.     9.    I  cannot  con- 
template the  number  of  the  stars  without  being  terrified  at 
the  idea  of  the  power  which  called  them  forth.     10.  That 
power  alone  sees  clearly  into  the  infinite. 

b)  1.    I  have  searched  and  found  worlds  beyond  worlds. 

2.  Our    own   world   is    an   atom    compared   with   others. 

3.  We  can  scarcely  express  its  grandeur,  how  then  can  we 
explain  that  of  greater  ones.     4.    Do  you  believe  the  other 
worlds  are  inhabited?    I  do.     5.    I  think  we  shall  some 
day  be  able  to  communicate  with  the  inhabitants  of  Mars. 
6.   Would  you  like  to  make  their  acquaintance  ?     7.    Do 
you  believe  that  there  is  eternal  silence  in  the  vast  spaces 
beyond   the  earth?      8.    If   you  try  could  you  hear  the 


EXERCISES.  47 

"music  of  the  spheres"?  9.  It  is  impossible  to  under- 
. stand  the  grandeur  of  the  heavens.  10.  Our  ideas  are  like 
a  grain  of  sand  which  falls  into  the  ocean. 

Vous  qui  luirez  toujours,  e"toiles  immobiles, 

Claris  dont  la  douceur  e"tonne  les  enfants, 

Nous  voyez-vous,  nous  tous  qui  souffrons  dans  les  villes  ? 

Entendez-vous  les  voix  qui  pleurent  dans  les  champs  ? 

Merveilleux  univers,  sourd  a  rhomme  qui  pense, 
Ton  espace  infini  m'e'pouvante,  et  j'ai  peur 
De  ton  immensity  moins  que  de  ton  silence, 
Gouffre  ou  nous  n'entendons  battre  que  notre  coeur. 

[PAUL  BOURGET.] 


CHAPITRE    XIX. 

En  France  le  developpement  intellectuel  et  le  developpe- 
ment  social  n'ont  jamais  manque  Pun  a  Pautre.  A  cote 
des  grands  evenements  des  revolutions,  des  ameliorations 
'  publiques,  on  aperqoit  toujours  dans  notre  histoire,  des 
idees  generales,  des  doctrines  qui  leur  correspondent.  Bien 
ne  s'est  passe  dans  le  monde  reel,  dont  Pintelligence  ne  se 
soit  a  Pinstant  saisie,  et  ii'ait  tire  pour  son  propre  compte 
une  nouvelle  richesse ;  rien  dans  le  domaine  de  Pintelli- 
gence, qui  n'ait  eu  dans  le  monde  reel,  et  presque  toujours 
assez  vite,  son  retentissement  et  son  resultat.  Ce  double 
caractere  d'activite  intellectuelle  et  d'habilete  pratique  est 
empreint  dans  tous  les  grands  evenements  de  Phistoire 
de  France.  [FRANCOIS  GUIZOT.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Qu'est-ce  qui  n'a  jamais  manque  en  France  ? 
2.  Le  developpement  intellectuel  n'a-t-il  pas  egale  le  de- 
veloppement social  ?  3.  Qu'aper^oit-on  dans  Phistoire  de 
France  ?  4.  L'histoire  de  France  est-elle  la  votre  ? 


48  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

5.  Qu?est-ce  qui  correspond  aux  revolutions  de  France  ? 

6.  Qu'est-ce   qui  correspond  aux  ameliorations  publiques 
en  France  ?     7.    L'intelligence  franchise  iVa-t-elle  pas  saisi 
immediatement  les  evenements  du  monde  reel  ?     8.    Qu'est- 
ce  que  la  France  a  tire  de  cette  vive  intelligence  ?     9.    Sui- 
vez-vous  les   evenements   du  monde  ?      10.    En  tirez-vous 
profit  ? 

£)  1.  Suivez-vous  ce  qui  se  passe  dans  le  domaine  de 
Intelligence  ?  2.  Ce  qui  se  passe  dans  le  monde  de  Pin- 
telligence  est-il  toujours  saisi  dans  le  monde  reel  ?  3.  L'est- 
il  generalement  en  France  ?  4.  Trouve-t-il  la  son  retentis- 
sement  et  son  resultat  ?  5.  Quel  caractere  trouvez-vous 
empreint  dans  Thistoire  de  France  ?  6.  Ce  caractere  est-il 
empreint  dans  tous  les  evenements  ?  7.  Ne  Pest-il  pas 
surtout  dans  les  plus  grands  ?  8.  Avez-vous  lu  Phistoire 
de  France  de  Guizot  ?  9.  Aimeriez-vous  a  la  lire  en  fran- 
qais  ?  10.  Les  etudes  historiques  n'ont-elles  pas  un  charme 
puissant  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Give  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  in  the 
lesson  (pages  75-80). 

2.  Write  the  feminine  of  all  the  masculine  adjectives  in 
the  lesson. 

3.  Write  the  masculine  of  all  the  feminine  adjectives  in 
the  lesson. 

4.  Conjugate  the  verbs  apercevoir,  saisir,  correspondre  in 
all  the  modes,  tenses  and  forms  (page  44). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  The  intellectual  movement  in  France  has  not  been 
wanting,  although  the  country  has  suffered  from  many 
revolutions.  2.  Those  revolutions  have  brought  with  them 
great  improvements.  3.  Have  you  ever  studied  the  His- 


EXERCISES.  49 

tory  of  Civilization  in  France  ?  4.  Does  it  not  show  the 
progress  in  development,  either  intellectual  or  social  ? 
5.  Does  the  history  of  Prance  correspond  with  that  of 
other  European  nations  ?  6.  Have  you  noticed  the  pro- 
gress of  the  same  ideas  and  doctrines  in  Germany  ? 
7.  Have  you  observed  (suivre)  the  course  of  recent  events 
in  Europe  ?  8.  Do  you  believe  that  other  countries  will 
profit  by  them  ?  9.  The  intellectual  and  social  events  of 
the  day  interest  us.  10.  I  desire  you  to  read  history. 

b)  1.  Permit  me  to  tell  you  the  truth  in  giving  you  this 
counsel.  2.  It  is  important  that  you  should  know  the 
character  of  events.  3.  You  should  read  the  history  of 
France.  4.  You  will  find  it  interesting  even  in  English. 
5.  Read  books  in  order  to  form  your  taste.  6.  Unless 
you  read,  unless  you  study,  you  will  not  be  able  to  enjoy  life 
in  the  domain  of  intelligence.  7.  I  am  astonished  that 
you  have  been  able  to  read  so  much.  8.  Is  there  a  man 
who  can  say  he  is  happy,  when  he  does  nothing  ?  9.  Do 
you  believe  that  he  is  really  happy  ?  10.  I  doubt  it. 

Les  connais-tu,  les  trois  couleurs, 
Les  trois  couleurs  de  France  ? 
Celles  qui  font  rever  les  cceurs 
De  gloire  et  d'espe'rance. 
Bleu  celeste,  couleur  du  jour, 
Rouge  de  sang,  couleur  d' amour, 
Blanc,  franchise  et  vaillance. 

[GEORGES  GOURDON.] 


CHAPITRE   XX. 

Quand  il  fallut  annoncer  a  la  tante  Annette  que  nous 
partions  pour  Paris,  car  moii  pere  m'emmenait ;  lorsqu'il 
fallut  se  separer,  1'embrasser,  lui  dire  adieu,  la  laisser  seule, 
quel  dechirement !  Nous  suivre,  elle  ne  Petit  point  voulu ; 
elle  aimait  sa  vieille  maison  noire,  ses,  meubles  de  chene. 


50  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

uses,  sa  chaise  aupres  de  la  fenetre,  et  cette  campagne,  ces 
pies,  ces  arbres  frissoniiants  qu'*elle  regardait  a  travers 
ses  lunettes ;  mais  surtout  elle  haissait  Paris,  le  Paris  des 
revolutions  et  des  theatres !  Pauvre  chere  excellente  f emme. 
Le  jour  du  depart  je  me  jetai  a  son  cou,  je  I'embrassai,  et 
nous  pleurames,  moi  ne  disant  rien.  J'etais  oppresse,  j'avais 
peur,  je  voulais  partir  et  le  desir  me  prenait  maintenant, 
de  rester,  de  me  cacher  quelque  part,  la-haut  dans  le  grenier. 
[ JULES  CLARETIE.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Que  fallut-il  annoncer  a  la  tante  Annette  ?     2.  Qui 
emmenait  le  neveu  de  la  tante  Annette  ?     3.    Ou  le  menait- 
on?    4.    Que   dut   faire   Penfant?     5.    Que   sentait-il   en 
laissant   sa  tante   seule  ?     6.    La   tante   Annette    eut-elle 
voulu  suivre  son  neveu?     7.    Pourquoi  ne  le  voulait-elle" 
point  ?    8.  A  quoi  s'etait-elle  attachee  ?    9.  Que  voyait-elle 
de  sa  fenetre  ?     10.    Comment  regardait-elle  la  campagne  ? 

b)  1.    Pourquoi  la   tante   Annette   haissait-elle   Paris? 
2.    Que   haissait-elle   de   Paris  ?     3.    Eut-elle   admire   les 
larges  boulevards  et  les  beaux  monuments  ?     4.    W eut-elle 
pas  prefere  les  vieux  palais  historiques  ?     5.    Ne  croyez- 
vous  pas  qu'elle  eut  admire  Notre-Dame  ?     6.    Comprenez- 
vous  la  douleur  de  1'excellente  femme  en  se  separant  de 
son   neveu  ?      7.    Que   fit   le   neveu   le   jour   du   depart  ? 
8.  Trouva-t-il  des  mots  pour  exprimer  sa  douleur?    9.  Etait- 
il  partage  entre  des  sentiments  opposes  ?     10.    Ou  aurait-il 
voulu  se  cacher  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verbs  of  the  lesson  in  the  affirmative, 
negative,  and  interrogative  forms. 

2.  Study  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  imperfect  and  past 
definite  (pages  68-72). 

3.  What  is  the  irregularity  in  hair,  jeter  (pages  111,  49)? 


EXERCISES.  51 

4.  Write  the  masculine  of  all  the  feminine  adjectives 
in  the  lesson. 

5.  Write  the  conjunctive  pronouns  and  their  correspond- 
ing disjunctive,  (pages  19,  20). 

Theme. 

a)  1.    When  we  were  with   aunt  Annetta,  my  father 
decided  to  go  to  Paris.     2.    We  were  obliged  to  tell  my 
aunt  of   our  project.      3.    She  did  not  wish  to  go  to  'the 
great  and  bustling  (bruyante)  city.    4.   It  made  her  very  sad 
to  say  good-bye  to  her  dear  nephew.      5.    But  she  loved 
the  gloomy  old  house,  its  worn  oak  furniture,  and  her  chair 
by  the  window.     6.  From  this  chair  she  could  look  through 
her  spectacles,   and  see  the  blooming  meadows  and   the 
trees  which  she  loved.    7.   She  hated  Paris,  its  revolutions, 
and  its  theaters.     8.    She  did  not  wish  us  to  go  there. 
9.    My  father  was  in  Paris  the  year  before.     10.    He  did 
not  wish  to  leave  her  alone,  but  she  was  so  attached  to  the 
country  that  she  would  not  leave  it. 

b)  1.    The  day  of   departure  came.      2.    We  separated, 
after  having  said  good-bye.     3.    I  had  thrown  myself  on 
her  neck,  had  kissed  her,  and  we  both  wept.     4.    I  said 
nothing,   for  I  was  oppressed  with  a  desire  to    remain. 
5.    Was  it  fear  of  the  journey,  of  seeing  strangers,  which 
seized  me  ?     6.    I  wanted  to  conceal  myself   somewhere. 
7.    I  loved  my  good  aunt,  and  was  full  of  sorrow  at  leaving 
her.     8.    I  found  no  words  to  express  this  sorrow.     9.    I 
had  heard  so  much  of  Paris,   of  its  fine  buildings,  and 
magnificent  streets.     10.    I  wanted  to  see  the  great  capital, 
but  also  to  stay  with  her  whom  I  loved. 

O  vous  qui  demeurez,  pensez  au  voyageur ! 
Et  faites,  par  piti£,  mentir  le  vieil  adage 
Qui  dit  si  tristement ;  Loin  des  yeux,  loin  du  cceur. 

[CLAUDIUS 


52  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

CHAPITRE   XXL 

On  ne  saurait  trop  le  repeter :  sans  le  temps  et  Papplica- 
tion  constante,  on  ne  fait  rien  de  veritablement  grand. 
Si,  dans  ce  qui  depasse  la  portee  du  moment,  on  a  Pair 
d'improviser  quelque  chose  de  sublime,  c'est  qu'on  y  a 
pense  lorsque  personne  n'y  songeait ;  puis  lorsque  Pheure 
est  venue  ou  la  pensee  publique  s'y  porte,  on  est  plus 
avance  que  tous  les  autres  ;  tel  est  le  secret  des  grandes 
choses.  Ce  secret  est  dans  la  force  de  la  meditation  unie 
a  la  pensee  du  temps.  La  sagacite,  Y  esprit,  le  genie  con- 
sistent a  prevoir  ce  qui  un  jour  occupera  tout  le  monde,  et 
a  s'y  preparer.  On  pourrait  presque  dire  qu'il  y  a  deja 
quelque  chose  d'accompli  dans  ce  qui  a  ete  longtemps  et 
fortement  medite.  [LE  GENERAL  AMBERT.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Qu'est-ce  qui  est  necessaire  pour  faire  quelque 
chose  de  grand?     2.    Est-il  utile  de  repeter  cette  verite? 

3.  A-t-on    quelquefois    Pair    d'improviser   des   choses   su- 
blimes ?      4.    Ces    choses    sublimes    sont-elles    reellement 
improvisees  ?      5.    Quand   les   auteurs    y   ont-ils    pense  ? 
6.    Quand   executent-ils   leurs   pensees?      7.    Pourquoi  y 
reussissent-ils  ?     8.    Ou  est  le  secret  des  grands  hommes? 

9.  En   quoi    consistent    la    sagacite,   Pesprit,   le    genie  ? 

10.  Que  prevoit-on  quand  on  a  du  genie  ? 

b)  1.    Quand  on  a  fortement  pense,  a-t-on  prepare  P exe- 
cution d'un  grand  pro  jet?     2.    Croyez-vous  que  le  monde 
en  general  soit  enclin  a  la  meditation?     3.    Ne  croyez-vous 
pas  que  Phomme  qui  medite  soit  plus  avance  que  les  autres  ? 

4.  Que  pourrait-on  dire  de  lui  a  juste  titre  ?     5.    N?est-ce 
pas  la  force  de  la  pensee  qui  vainc  les  forces  de  la  nature  ? 
6.    Comment  Phomme  est-il  arrive  a  maitriser  les  autres 
animaux  ?     7,    Ne   le   surpassaient-ils   pas   en  force  ?     8. 


EXERCISES.  53 

L'homme  pourrait-il  lutter  centre  le  lion,  le  tigre  et  Tele- 
pliant,  s'il  n'avait  pas  la  force  de  Pintelligence  ?  9.  De 
deux  races  rivales,  laquelle  doit  Pemporter  sur  Pautre? 
10.  Est-il  done  de  Pinteret  d'une  nation  de  developper 
Tintelligence  des  enfants  ? 

Grrammaire. 

1.  Study  the  rules  for  the  use  of  ony  y,  personnej  quelque 
chose  (pages  20,  34,  35). 

2.  Conjugate  the  verbs  savoir,  faire,  songer,  venir,  in  all 
their  modes,  tenses,  and  forms  (pages  57,  54,  44,  58). 

3.  Write  the  adverbs  in  the  lessons,  and  give  the  adjec- 
tives from  which  they  are  derived.     (See  page  91.) 

4.  Form  adverbs  from  the  adjectives  when  it  is  possible 
to  do  so. 

5.  Give  the  simple  adverbs  which  are  not  derived  from 
adjectives. 

Theme. 

a)  1.   What  must  one  regard  as  necessary  in  order  to 
do  something  great  ?     2.    Can  it  be  too  often  repeated  ? 
3.    One  can  do  nothing  without  application.     4.    The  sub- 
lime ideas  which  often  appear  improvised  are  the  result 
of  study.     5.    Authors  sometimes  think  of  them  for  a  long 
time.      6.    Something   beautiful,   something   grand   is  the 
result  of  their  meditations.     7.    I  doubt  whether  anyone 
ever  wrote  a  great  poem  without  preparation.     8.    Such 
is  the  secret  of  their  success.     9.    At  least  I  have  been 
told  so.     10.  When  one  has  genius  he  foresees  the  ideas 
that  will  one  day  interest  the  world. 

b)  1.   He  thinks  profoundly  about  them  and  writes  tfiem 
down.      2.    They  say :    There   is   inspiration.  '    3.    It  is  a 
pity  that  it  should  be  so.      4.    There   are   few  men  who 
know  how  to  think.     />.    Do  you  not  think  those  men  are 


54  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

far  in  advance  of  the  rest?  6.  It  is  the  only  hope  that 
remains  to  us.  7.  Thought  is  the  sole  force  that  can 
conquer  nature.  8.  Whatever  riches  you  possess,  do  not 
despise  intelligence.  ,  9.  One  should  learn  how  to  think. 
10.  Do  you  believe  that  people  in  general  are  inclined  to 
meditation? 

La  vraie  Constance  consiste  a  vouloir  toujours  ce  que  veulent  la 
raison  et  la  justice.     [SAINT-EVREMOND.] 


CHAPITRE   XXII. 

Entre  la  sculpture  et  la  musique,  ces  deux  extremes 
opposes,  est  la  peinture,  presqu'aussi  precise  que  Tune, 
presqu'aussi  touchante  que  Pautre.  Comme  la  sculpture, 
elle  marque  les  formes  visibles  des  objets,  en  y  ajoutant  la 
vie ;  comme  la  musique,  elle  exprime  les  sentiments  les 
plus  profonds  de  Tame,  et  elle  les  exprime  tous.  Le 
peintre  a  la  nature  entiere  a  sa  disposition,  le  monde  phy- 
sique et  le  monde  moral,  un  paysage,  un  coucher  de  soleil, 
Pocean,  les  grandes  scenes  de  la  vie  civile  et  religieuse,  par 
dessus  tout  le  visage  de  Phomme,  et  son  regard,  ce  vivant 
miroir  de  ce  qui  se  passe  dans  Tame.  Plus  pathetique  que 
la  sculpture,  plus  claire  que  la  musique,  la  peinture  s'eleve 
au  dessus  de  toutes  les  deux,  parce  qu'elle  exprime  davan- 
tage  la  beaute  sous  toutes  ses  formes.  [VICTOR  COUSIN.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Quels  arts  representent  les  formes  visibles  des 
objets  ?  2.  La  peinture  a-t-elle  autant  de  precision  que  la 
sculpture  ?  3.  Yous  touche-t-elle  autant  que  la  musique  ? 
4.  Croyez-vous  que  Victor  Cousin  comprit  toute  la  beaute 
de  la  musique  ?  5.  Qu'ajoute  la  sculpture  aux  formes 
visibles  des  objets  ?  6.  Quels  sentiments  la  peinture 


EXERCISES.  55 

peut-elle  exprimer  ?  7.  Peut-elle  les  exprimer  tons  ? 
8.  De  quoi  le  peintre  peut-il  disposer  ?  9.  Que  peut-il 
trouver,  par  exemple,  dans  le  monde  physique  ?  10.  Com- 
ment peut-il  representer  le  monde  moral  ? 

b)  1.  La  representation  des  grandes  scenes  de  la  vie 
civile  et  religieuse,  ne  nous  fait-elle  pas  penetrer  dans  le 
monde  moral  ?  2.  Qu?est-ce  que  le  regard  de  rhomme  ? 

3.  Que  nous  permet-il  d'entrevoir?     4.    Quel  avantage  la 
peinture  a-t-elle  sur  la  sculpture  ?     5.    Et  sur  la  musique  ? 
6.    Croyez-vous  qu'un  sculpteur  ou  un  musicien  admettent 
cette    superiorite  ?      7.    Comment    Victor    Cousin    croit-il 
que  la  peinture  exprime  la  beaute  ?     8.    Quelle  forme  de 
peinture  preferez-vous,   le  paysage,  le  tableau   de  genre, 
le    tableau   historique,    ou    le    portrait  ?      9.    Donnez    la 
raison  de  votre  preference.     10.    La  Prance  a-t-elle  pro- 
duit  de  grands  peintre s  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Note  the  present  participles  in  the  lesson,  and  give 
reasons  for  their  usage  (page  87). 

2.  Compare  the  adjectives  in  the  lesson  (page  13). 

3.  Give  the  plural  of  all  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the 
lesson  (pages  2-4,  12-13). 

4.  Conjugate  the  verbs  vivre,  se  passer,  s'elever,  in  all 
their  modes,  tenses,  and  forms  (pages  59,  60). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  The  visible  forms  of  objects  are  represented  by 
sculpture  and  painting.  2.  Musicians  express  the  deepest 
emotions  of  the  soul  in  their  compositions.  3.  Do  you  not 
believe  that  a  painter  also  portrays  those  deep  emotions  ? 

4.  Does  sculpture  or  painting  move  you  ?      5.    Have  you 
ever  seen  any  one  weep  over  a  work  of  art  ?     6.    Do  not 


56  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

people  melt  into  tears  under  the  influence  of  music  ?  7.  I 
doubt  if  Victor  Cousin  understood  music.  8.  Unless  you 
are  touched  by  music  you  will  not  love  it.  9.  Do  you 
hope  to  understand  it?  10.  Choose  a  place  where  you 
can  study  it. 

b)  1.  It  is  a  grand  gift  to  be  able  to  represent  scenes  in 
nature.  2.  Artists  do  not  represent  them  as  they  are,  but 
as  they  conceive  them  to  be.  3.  One  must  be  something 
of  an  artist  to  be  able  to  see  like  an  artist.  4.  Did  Victor 
Cousin  think  that  painting  was  superior  to  sculpture  and 
music  ?  5.  No  musician  would  admit  that  to  be  true. 
6.  The  glance  is  the  living  mirror  of  the  soul.  7.  Do 
portraits  always  represent  that  mirror  with  fidelity  ?  8.  Do 
you  prefer  sculpture  or  painting  ?  9.  I  am  sorry  that  yoti 
do  not  like  music.  10.  It  is  the  greatest  pleasure  that 
remains  to  me. 

fitre  poete,  c'est  aimer 
L'ide'al  rayonnant  des  choses, 
Le  soleil,  P amour  et  les  roses, 
Tout  ce  qui  nait  pour  embaumer. 

[GEORGES  BOUTELLEAU.] 


CHAPITRE    XXIII. 
LA  FRANCHE-COMTE. 

La  Franche-Comte  de  Bourgogne  est  comme  le  Tyrol  de 
la  France  :  une  nature  grandiose  et  pittoresque  y  tient  lieu 
de  monuments,  et  le  cceur  de  Phomme  semble  emprunter 
a  cette  nature  quelque  chose  de  sa  force  et  de  sa  grandeur. 
Sur  les  flancs  du  Jura,  au  milieu  des  forets  de  sapins  et 
dans  les  gorges  profondes  que  creusent  le  Doubs  et  ses 
affluents,  il  s'est  forme  une  race  austere,  energique,  intelli- 
gente,  naguere  passionnee  pour  ses  antiques  franchises,  de 


EXERCISES.  57 

tout  temps  celebre  par  son.  ardeur  belliqueuse,  son  fier  et 
opiniatre  devoueinent  a  ses  maitres.  An  dix-septieme 
siecle,  les  paysans  comtois  se  faisaient  enterrer  la  face 
contre  terre,  pour  temoigner  de  1'aversion  que  leur  inspi- 
raient  la  conquete  franchise  et  la  domination  de  Louis 
XIV.  Et  toutefois  a  la  fin  du  dix-huitieme  siecle,  tous  les 
coeurs  y  etaient  tellement  impregnes  du  sentiment  francais, 
que  nulle  province  n'a  fourni  a  la  patrie  menacee  des 
bataillons  de  volontaires  plus  nombreux,  plus  intrepid.es, 
plus  prodigues  de  leur  vie.  [CHARLES,  COMTE  DE  MON- 

TALEMBEKT.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Ou  est  situee  la  Franche-Comte  ?  2.  A  quel 
celebre  pays  de  montagnes  ressemble-t-elle  ?  3.  De  quoi 
tient  lieu  une  nature  grandiose  ?  4.  Qu?est-ce  que  le 
cceur  de  l'homme  y  emprunte  a  la  nature  ?  5.  Quelle 
chaine  de  montagnes  se  trouve  dans  la  Franche-Comte  ? 

6.  Quelles  forets  y  trouve-t-on  sur  les  flancs  des  montagnes? 

7.  Quelle  est  la  riviere  la  plus  considerable  de  la  Franche- 
Comte?      8.    Qu'est-ce  que  le  Doubs  a  creuse  parmi  les 
montagnes  ?     9.    Comment  s'appelleiit  les  montagnes  de  la 
Franche-Comte  ?     10.  Pour  quoi  la  race  des  Francs-Comtois 
s'est-elle  passionnee  naguere  ? 

I)  1.  Par  quoi  la  race  des  Francs-Comtois  a-t-elle  ete 
celebre  de  tout  temps  ?  2.  Que  hai'ssaieiit  les  paysans  de 
la  Franche-Comte  au  dix-septieme  siecle  ?  3.  Comment  se 
f aisaient-ils  enterrer  ?  4.  De  quoi  voulaient-ils  temoigner  ? 
5.  Leurs'  sentiments  avaient-ils  change  au  dix-huitieme 
siecle  ?  6.  De  quoi  leurs  coeurs  s?etaient-ils  impregnes  ? 

7.  Qu'est-ce  que  la  Franche-Comte  a  fourni  a  la  France? 

8.  Quand   a-t-elle    fourni   ces   bataillons  ?     9.    Que    prodi- 
guaient  ces  volontaires  francs-comtois  ?     10.    Pourquoi  se 
donnaient-ils  ainsi  a  la  France  ? 


58  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Grammaire. 

1.  Study  the  numeral  adjectives  (page  14). 

2.  Give  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  feminine  in  nouns 
and  adjectives  (pages  2,  10-12). 

3.  Conjugate  -the  verbs  in  the  lesson. 

4.  Write  the  indefinite  pronouns  and  the  indefinite  ad- 
jectives. 

5.  Eeview  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  article  (pages  4-9). 

Theme. 

a)  1.    Franche-Comte  is  a  very  picturesque  division  of 
Burgundy.     2.    There  Nature  takes  the  place  of  fine  build- 
ings.    3.    In  the  mountains  the  heart  of  man  can  borrow 
something  of  the  force  and  grandeur  of  nature.     4.    The 
rivers  flow  through  deep  gorges.     5.    Great  forests  of  firs 
cover  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.    6.  In  the  midst  of  these 
forests  grew  up  an  austere  race  of  energetic  men.    7.   They 
were    intelligent    and    dearly   loved    freedom.      8.    They 
were  celebrated  in  every  age  for  their  warlike  ardor  and 
devotion   to   their  masters.     9.    They  hated   France   and 
the    power   of    Louis    XIV.      10.    In    the    17th   century 
they  showed  their  hatred  of  him  by  the  manner  of  their 
interment. 

b)  1.  However,  in  the  18th  century  they  showed  the  same 
devotion  to  France.     2.    No  province  has  furnished  more 
intrepid  soldiers.     3.    They  have  always  shown  a  haughty 
and  obstinate   devotion  to  the   sentiments  inspired  by  a 
love  of  country.     4.    The  battalions  from  Franche-Comte 
were   larger,  more   intrepid,  more   prodigal   of  life,  than 
those    of    any    other   province.      5.    Eemember    that   the 
largest  river  of  this  province  is  the  Doubs.     6.    The  Jura 
has  its  flanks  clothed  in  forests,  though  the  summits  are 
covered  with  snow.     7.    One  should  go  there  to  study  the 


EXEBCISES.  59 

beauty  of  nature.  8.  The  deep  gorges,  the  overhanging 
rocks,  the  tall  firs,  the  nourishing  vineyards,  all  are  full  of 
beauty.  9.  Yield  to  the  influence  of  nature,  and  you  will 
admire  the  people. 

Pays  de  la  verdure  intense  et  des  eaux  vives, 
Du  vieil  esprit  gaulois  et  des  joyeux  convives, 
Province  ou  mon  premier  amour  fut  abrite', 
Sol  d'ou  montent  aux  cieux  des  rocs  aux  belles  lignes, 
Ou  poussent  les  sapins,  ou  murissent  les  vignes, 
Je  t'aime,  6  ma  Franche-Comte' ! 

[CHARLES  GRANDMOUGIN.] 


CHAPITRE   XXIV. 
LA  MEMOIRE. 

La  memoire,  c'est  la  lampe  du  soir  de  la  vie  :  quand  la 
nuit  tombe  autour  de  nous,  quand  les  beaux  soleils  du 
printemps  et  de  Tete  se  soiit  couches  derriere  un  horizon 
charge  de  nuages,  Thomme  rallume  en  lui  cette  lampe 
nocturne  de  la  memoire.  II  la  porte  d'une  main  tremblante 
tout  autour  des  annees,  aujourd'hui  sombres,  qui  com- 
poserent  son  existence.  II  en  promene  pieusement  la  lueur 
sur  tous  les  jours,  sur  tous  les  lieux,  sur  tous  les  objets  qui 
furent  les  dates  de  ses  felicites  du  coeur  ou  de  Pesprit  dans 
le  meilleur  temps,  et  il  se  console  de  vivre  encore  par  le 
bonheur  d'avoir  vecu. 

Tant  qu'un  homme  se  souvient,  il  revit. 

[ALPHONSE  DE  LAMARTINE.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Qu'est-ce  que  la  memoire  du  vieillard  ?  2.  Quelle 
nuit  tombe  autour  de  lui  ?  3.  Qu'est-ce  qui  est  couche  pour 
lui  ?  4.  Quel  horizon  voit-il  devant  lui  ?  5.  Que  rallume 


60  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

en  lui  le  vieillard  ?  6.  Comment  porte-t-il  sa  lanipe  ? 
7.  Ou  en  porte-t-il  la  lumiere  ?  8.  Comment  lui  parais- 
sent  les  amiees  qui  composerent  son  existence  ?  9.  A-t-il  la 
piete  du  souvenir?  10.  Ces  souvenirs  lui  sont-ils  precieux? 
b)  1.  Que  marquent  certains  objets  pour  le  vieillard? 
2.  En  quel  temps  a-t-il  ete  heureux  ?  3.  Quel  est  le  meil- 
leur  temps,  a  votre  avis?  4.  Comment  le  vieillard  se 
console-t-il  de  vivre  encore?  5.  Combien  de  temps  Thornine 
vit-il  reellement  ?  6.  La  memoire  n'est-elle  pas  utile  a  la 
jeunesse  ?  7.  ISPaurions-nous  pas  tort  d'en  negliger  la 
culture  ?  8.  N?est-il  pas  facile,  quand  on  est  jeune,  de 
mettre  dans  sa  memoire  un  grand  nombre  de. belles  et  utiles 
choses  ?  9.  Avez-vous  dans  la  memoire  les  plus  belles 
pages  de  votre  litterature  ?  10.  Ne  voudriez-vous  pas  y 
aj outer  quelques  pages  de  la  litterature  franchise  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verbs  se  coucher,  se  souvenir,  promener, 
vivre  in  all  their  modes,  tenses,  and  forms  (pages  60,  58, 
44,  -59). 

2.  Compare  the  adjectives  in  the  lesson. 

3.  Write  the  prepositions  in  the  lesson. 

4.  What  mode  follows  the  conjunctions  in  the  lesson  ? 

5.  Beview  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  past  definite 
(pages  70-72). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Memory  is  a  lamp  for  the  aged.  2.  Do  you  think 
that  he  finds  consolation  for  his  old  age  in  the  memories 
of  his  youth  ?  3.  Lamartine  said  that  it  was  good  to  light 
the  lamp  of  memory.  4.  Do  you  think  that  the  last  years 
of  life  are  gloomy  ?  5.  Have  you  never  seen  happy  and 
cheerful  old  men  ?  6.  There  are  people  whose  lives  seem 
to  be  an  eternal  summer.  7.  They  have  had  an  existence 


EXERCISES.  61 

full  of  felicity.  8.  Many  years  ago  an  old  lady  told  me 
that  her  happiest  days  ^ere  passing.  9.  Is  not  autumn  a 
beautiful  season  ?  10.  And  winter,  too,  is  full  of  charm 
and  beauty. 

b)  1.  Why  should  not  old  age  be  as  delightful  as 
winter  ?  2.  Lamartine  consoled  himself  with  the  thoughts 
of  the  past.  3.  He  remembered  the  happiness  of  the 
olden  time.  4.  The  horizon  was  full  of  clouds,  and  the 
sun  of  spring-time  had  se%.  5.  Then  he  lighted  the  lamp 
of  memory.  6.  With  a  trembling  hand  he  carried  it  back 
through  the  corridors  of  the  years.  7.  He  consoled  him- 
self because  he  had  lived.  8.  Would  you  like  to  live  your 
life  over  again  ?  9.  Do  you  think  you  would  have  done 
better  ?  10.  I  expect  you  to  tell  me  the  truth. 

Je  voudrais  revivre  ma  vie, 
Jour  par  jour,  avec  la  raison 
D'une  intelligence  asservie, 
Que  ne  tente  plus  P  horizon  ; 

Relire  tout  entier  inon  livre 
Sans  me  hater  et  sans  fre'mir, 
De  la  page  ou  Pon  se  sent  vivre 
A  celle  ou  Ton  se  voit  mourir. 

[MADAME  ALPHONSE  DAUDET.] 


CHAPITRE    XXV. 

La  vie  intime  de  la  province  a  un  charme  dont  on  ne 
conqoit  aucune  idee  a  Paris,  et  qui  se  fait  surtout  sentir 
dans  les  premieres  annees  de  la  vie.  On  peut  aimer  le 
sejour  de  Paris  dans  1'age  de  Pactivite,  du  besoin  des  emo- 
tions et  des  succes  ;  mais  c'est  en  province  qu'il  faut  etre 
enfant,  qu'il  faut  etre  adolescent,  qu'il  faut  gouter  les  sen- 
timents d'une  ame  qui  commence  a  se  coiinaitre.  Ce  n'est 
pas  a  Paris  qu'on  eprouvera  jamais  ces  emotions  incom- 


62  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

prehensibles  que  reveillent  au  fond  du  coeur  le  son  d'une 
certaine  cloche,  1'aspect  d'un  buissbn,  le  jeu  d'un  rayon  de 
soleil  sur  un  petit  toit  solitaire.  Ces  doux  mysteres  du 
souvenir  n'appartiennent  qu'au  village.  [CHARLES  NODIEK.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Que   possede   la  vie   de   province?     2.    Que   ne 
conceit-on  pas  a  Paris  ?     3.    Quand  ce  charme  se  fait-il 
surtout    sentir  ?     4.    A   quel   age   aime-t-on   le    sejour  de 
Paris  ?     5.    Pourquoi  aime-t-on  Paris  alors  ?    6.    Ou  faut-il 
etre  quand  on  est  enfant  ou  adolescent  ?     7.   Que  goute-t-on 
mieux  en  province  ?     8.    Que  reveillent  en  nous    le    son 
d'une    certaine    cloche    ou    Taspect    d'un    toit    solitaire  ? 

9.  Ces   emotions   appartiennent-elles  surtout  au  village  ? 

10.  Ne  sont-ce  pas  la  les  mysteres  du  souvenir. 

b)  1.    Peut-on  aimer  la  province  a  tout  age  ?     2.    La  vie 
y   est-elle   aussi   pleine   d'emotions   qu'a    Paris  ?     3.    Le 
succes  y  est-il  aussi  facile  ?     4.   N?est-il  pas  plus  aise  de 
regler  son  coeur  et  sa  vie  en  province  ?     5.    Pourquoi  les 
souvenirs  de  la  grande  ville  s'effacent-ils  plus  facilement  ? 

6.  Les  sentiments  ont-ils  le  temps  de  penetrer  le  coeur  ? 

7.  La  famille  et  les  amis  peuvent-ils  se  grouper  aussi  bien 
a  Paris  qu'en  province  ?     8.    La  vie  n'est-elle  pas  fievreuse 
dans  Pagitation  d'une  grande  ville  ?     9.    Mais  la  vie  in- 
tellectuelle  n'y  est-elle  pas  puissante  ?     10.    Paris  n?est-il 
pas  le  centre  intellectuel  et  artistique  de  la  France  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verbs  concevoir,  pouvoir,  reveiller,  appar- 
tenir,  in  all  their  modes,  tenses,  and  forms  (pages  44, 56,  58). 

2.  Note  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  lesson,  and  give 
rules  for  their  use  (page  29). 

3.  Study  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  prepositions  «,  de, 
(See  pages  94-100,)  • 


EXERCISES.  63 

4.   Study  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  prepositions  en, 
dans.     (See  prepositions,  pages  100-101.) 


Theme. 

a)  1.    Life  in  small  towns  (province)  has  no  charm  for 
some  people.     2.    The  inhabitants  of  a  city  cannot  conceive 
that  there  is  any  pleasure  outside  of  the  city.     3.    Yet  the 
life  of  a  child  in  the  city  is  a  sad  one.     4.    He  knows 
nothing  of  the  real  joys  of  childhood.     5.    Do  you  think 
that  towns-people  (les  gens  de  province)   appreciate  their 
privileges  ?     6.    Which  do  you  prefer,  life   in  the   noisy 
city,   or  life  in  the  peaceful   village  ?     7.    Which  would 
excite  the  most  profound  emotions  ?     8.    Are  you  not  sad 
when  you  see  the  poor  of  a  great  city  ?     9.    One  should 
taste  the  pleasures  of  both  city  and  country  life  (campagne). 
10.    The  sound  of  the  bell  from  the  church  tower  seems 
more  melodious  in  the  country. 

b)  1.    Do  you  ever  feel,  as  if  you  could  sit  down  at  the 
road-side  ?  2.  Do  you  wish  to  do  that  in  a  city?    3.  I  should 
not  like  to  live  in  a  solitary  (isolee)  farm-house  (uneferme), 
would  you  ?     4.    If  you  went  to  Paris,  would  you  live  ih 
the  city.     5.    Did  you  stay  in  town,  when  you  were  in 
London  ?     6.    Some  people  go  to  Europe  every  year,  they 
do  not  like  the  country.     7.    They  travel  from  city  to  city, 
and  never  see  anything.     8.    Unhappy  souls  !  they  cannot 
live  without  excitement.     9.    No  landscape  has  any  beauty 
for  them.     10.    They  should  begin  to  study  nature,  and 
learn  to  recognize  its  beauty. 

C'e'tait  un  vieux  logis  ou  la  famille  entiere 
Avait  group£  longtemps  ses  arides  travaux, 
Ses  efforts  qu'animait  une  volont£  fiere, 
Et  ces  reves  du  coeur  toujours  chers  et  nouveaux. 

[FELIX  FRANK.] 


64  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

CHAPITRE   XXVI. 
LA  TOURAINE. 

Connaissez-vous  cette  partie  de  la  France  que  Ton  a  sur- 
nommee  son  jardin?  ce  pays  oii  Ton  respire  un  air  pur 
dans  des  plaines  verdoyantes  arrosees  par  un  grand  fleuve? 
Si  vous  avez  traverse  dans  les  mois  d'ete  la  belle  Touraine, 
vous  aurez  longtemps  suivi  avec  enchantement  la  Loire 
paisible,  vous  aurez  regrette  de  ne  pouvoir  determiner 
entre  les  deux  rives  celle  ou  vous  choisiriez  votre  demeure. 
Lorsqu'on  accompagne  le  flot  lent  et  jaune  du  beau  fleuve, 
on  ne  cesse  de  perdre  ses  regards  dans  les  riants  details 
qu'elles  presentent.  Des  vallons  peuples  de  jolies  maisons 
blanches  qu'entourent  des  bosquets,  des  coteaux  jaunis  par 
les  vignes  ou  blanchis  par  les  fleurs  du  cerisier,  de  vieux 
murs  converts  de  chevrefeuilles  naissants,  des  jardins  de 
roses  d'oii  sort  tout  a  coup  une  tour  elancee  :  tout  rappelle 
la  fecondite  de  la  terre  ou  1'anciennete  de  ses  monuments, 
et  tout  interesse  dans  les  ceuvres  de  ses  habitants  indus- 
trieux.  [ALFRED  DE  VIGNY.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Ou  est  situee  la  Touraine  ?     2.    Comment  Ta-t-on 
surnommee  ?     3.    Quel  air  y  respire-t-on  ?      4.    Quelle  est 
la  conformation  generale  du  pays  ?     5.    Quel  grand  fleuve 
traverse    la   Touraine  ?      6.    Aimer iez-vous  a  traverser  la 
Touraine  en  ete  ?     7.    Que  suivriez-vous  ?     8.    Que  regret- 
teriez-vous  peut-etre?     9.    Quelle  est  la  couleur  des  flots 
de  la  Loire  ?     10.    Le  courant  de  la  Loire  est-il  fort  ? 

b)  1.    Quels  details  de  pay  sage  trouvez-vous  aux  bords 
de  la  Loire  ?     2.  Qu'y  a-t-il  dans  les  vallons  ?    3.  Qu?est-ce 
qui  jaunit  les  coteaux?     4.    Qu'est-ce  qui  les  blanchit  ? 

Note  that  on  or  Von  may  be  used  at  will,  but  in  making  a  choice  euphony 
should  be  regarded. 


EXERCISES.  65 

5.  Qu'est-ce  qui  couvre  les  vieux  murs  ?  6.  Qu'est-ce  qui 
sort  tout  a  coup  d'un  jardin  de  roses  ?  7.  La  Touraine 
est-elle  feconde?  8.  Y  trouve-t-on  d'anciens  monuments  ? 

9.  Vous   interessez-vous    aux   oeuvres    de   ses   habitants  ? 

10.  Connaissez-vous  les  vieux  chateaux  historiques  de  la 
Touraine  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verbs  jaunir,  blanchir,  and  naitre  (pages 
44,  56). 

2.  Give  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plural  of 
nouns  (pages  2-4). 

3.  Give  the  rules  for  the  formation  of   the  plural  of 
adjectives  (pages  12,  13). 

4.  What  are  the  rules  for  the  use  of  si  (pages  68,  70, 
73,  74)? 

5.  What  is  the  rule  for  the  use  of  d'ou  (page  31)? 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Touraine  is  called  the  garden  of  France.  2.  A 
broad  river  waters  its  verdant  plains.  3.  That  is  the 
country  where  one  can  breathe  the  pure  air.  4.  If  you 
should  pass  a  summer  in  Touraine,  you  would  be  enchanted 
with  the  beauty  found  there.  5.  The  landscape  presents  a 
rare  charm  for  the  painter.  6.  The  slow  and  yellow  waters 
of  the  lovely  river  are  lost  to  view  amid  smiling  valleys. 
7.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  decide  which  bank  to  choose 
for  our  home.  8.  Each  shore  presents  new  beauties  at 
every  turn  of  the  Loire.  9.  If  you  looked  at  the  beautiful 
valleys  you  would  choose  to  live  there.  10.  If  you  looked 
at  the  slopes  whitened  by  the  blossoms  of  numberless 
cherry-trees,  you  would  live  there. 

5)  1.  Many  old  walls  in  the  valleys  are  covered  with 
honeysuckle,  and  the  gardens  are  full  of  roses.  2.  Here 


66  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

and  there  one  sees  the  slender  towers  of  some  old  castle. 
3.  Very  often  one  sees  the  ruins  of  an  old  mansion  sur- 
rounded by  groves  of  fine  trees.  4.  The  land  in  Touraine 
is  very  fertile.  5.  The  inhabitants  are  industrious,  and 
the  details  of  their  life  would  interest  you,  would  they 
not?  6.  Did  not  some  one  write  of  the  golden  sands  of 
the  Loire  ?  7.  Would  you  like  to  travel  in  such  a  charm- 
ing country?  8.  I  am  sure  you  would  be  interested  in 
the  people,  and  in  their  work.  9.  If  you  were  an  artist, 
would  you  live  in  a  country  like  Touraine  ?  10.  Which 
do  you  like  best,  plains  or  mountains  ? 

Jardin  de  P  Occident,  douce  terre  natale 
D'un  cceur  trop  pen  fervent  je  t'aimais  autrefois, 
O  Touraine,  ou  sur  1'or  des  sables  fins,  s'e"tale 
La  Loire  lente,  honneur  du  vieux  pays  gaulois. 

[JULES  LEMAITRE.] 


CHAPITRE   XXVII. 
LE  DEPART. 

On  leva  Pancre.  Le  soleil  se  couchait  quand  le  pilote 
cotier  nous  quitta,  apres  nous  avoir  mis  hors  des  passes. 
Le  temps  etait  sombre,  la  brise  molle,  et  la  houle  battait 
lourdement  les  ecueils,  a  quelques  encablures  du  vaisseau. 
Mes  regards  restaient  attaches  sur  Saint-Malo ;  je  venais 
d'y  laisser  ma  mere  tout  en  larmes.  J'apercevais  les 
clochers  et  les  domes  des  eglises  ou  j'avais  prie  avec  ma 
sceur  Lucile,  les  inurs,  les  remparts,  les  forts,  les  greves  ou 
•  j'avais  passe  mon  enfance  avec  mes  camarades  de  jeux ; 
j'abandonnais  ma  patrie  dechiree  lorsqu'elle  perdait  un 
homme,  Mirabeau,  que  rien  ne  pouvait  remplacer.  Je 
m'eloignais  egalement  incertain  des  destine'es  de  mon  pays 
et  des  miennes.  Eeverrais-je  jamais  cette  France  et  ma 
famille  ?  [CHATEAUBRIAND.] 


EXERCISES.  67 

JExercice. 

a)  1.    Que  leverent  les  matelots  ?     2.    Quand  leva-t-on 
1'ancre  ?      3.    Quand    le    pilote    quitta-t-il    le    vaisseau  ? 
4.    Quelle  est  la  fonction  du  pilote  cotier  ?     5.    Quel  temps 
faisait-il  quaiid  le  pilote    quitta  le  vaisseau?     6.    Ou  y 
avait-il  des  ecueils  ?     7.    Qu'est-ce  qui  battait  les  ecueils  ? 
8.    Ou  etaient  attaches  les  regards  du  voyageur  ?     9.    Pour- 
quoi  ses  yeux  ne  pouvaient-ils  quitter  Saint-Malo  ?     10.  Ou 
se  trouve  Saint-Malo  ? 

b)  1.    Que  voyait-on  encore  de  la  ville  de  Saint-Malo  ? 

2.  A  qui  pensait-il  en  regardant  les  clochers  des  eglises  ? 

3.  Pourquoi   lui   rappelaient-ils   le    souvenir    de    Lucile  ? 

4.  Ou  Chateaubriand  avait-il  passe  son  enfance  ?     5.    Ou 
avait-il   joue   avec   ses    camarades  ?     6.    A   quel   moment 
abandonnait-il  sa  patrie  ?     7.    Croyait-il  que  la  mort  de 
Mirabeau  fut  une  grande  perte  pour  la  France  ?     8.    De 
quoi  Chateaubriand  etait-il  incertain  ?     9.    Devait-il  jamais 
revoir  la  France  ?     10.    Avez-vous  lu  les  descriptions  qu'il 
fit  de  P  Amerique  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Conjugate  the  verbs  battre,  venir,  perdre,  revoir  in  all 
their  modes,  tenses,  and  forms  (pages  44,  58,  59). 

2.  Review  the  rules  for  the  use  of  the  imperfect  and 
past  definite  (pages  68-72). 

3.  Study  the  possessive  pronouns  (page  26). 

4.  What  verbs  in  the  lesson  take  no  preposition  before 
an  infinitive. 

5.  What  verbs  in  the  lesson  take  a  preposition  a  or  de 
before  an  infinitive.     (See  pages  113-117.) 

Theme. 

a)    1.    The  sun  was  setting  when  the  sailors  heaved  the 
anchor.     2.    Does  the  pilot  remain  with  a  vessel  until  the 


68  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

bars  have  been  passed?  3.  I  am  astonished  that  you 
sailed  in  such  bad  weather.  4.  The  weather  was  good 
when  I  sailed  from  St.  Malo.  5.  When  one  leaves  his 
native  land,  his  heart  beats  rapidly.  6.  Chateaubriand  let 
his  gaze  rest  on  St.  Malo.  7.  Did  you  leave  any  one 
there  ?  8.  Did  you  perceive  the  bell-towers  and  the  domes 
of  the  churches  ?  9.  One  could  see  the  walls  and  the  ram- 
parts of  the  forts.  10.  Chateaubriand  passed  his  child- 
hood at  St.  Malo. 

b)  1.  He  left  his  country  rent  with  sorrow  at  the  loss 
of  Mirabeau.  2.  He  was  uncertain  of  its  destiny  and  of 
his  own.  3.  Is  his  country  yours  ?  4.  He  was  sad  at 
leaving  his  family.  5.  We  also  were  sad  at  leaving  ours. 
6.  We  thought  of  our  happy  childhood  passed  in  the  quiet 
village.  7.  We  were  uncertain  whether  we  should  ever 
see  our  home  again.  8.  Our  comrades  and  friends  were 
passing  away.  9.  Do  you  believe  that  the  death  of  Mira- 
beau was  a  great  loss  to  Prance  ?  10.  Chateaubriand  re- 
called with  tears  the  memory  of  his  dear  friend. 

Adieu,  charmant  pays  de  France, 

Que  je  dois  tant  che"rir  ! 
Berceau  de  mon  heureuse  enfance, 

Adieu  !  te  quitter  c'est  mourir. 

[BERANGER,  Les  adieux  de  Marie  Stuart. ~\ 


CHAPTTRE    XXVIII. 

Vous  savez  que  je  ne  puis  souffrir  que  les  vieilles  gens 
disent :  Je  suis  trop  vieux  pour  me  corriger.  Je  pardon- 
nerais  plutot  aux  jeunes  gens  de  dire  :  Je  suis  trop  jeune. 
La  jeunesse  est  si  aimable,  qu'il  faudrait  Tadorer  si  Tame 
et  Fesprit  etaient  aussi  parfaits  que  le  corps ;  mais  quand 
on  n'est  plus  jeune,  c?est  alors  qu'il  faut  se  perfectionner 
et  tacher  de  regagner  par  les  bonnes  qualites  ce  qu'on 


EXERCISES.  69 

perd  du  cote  des  agreables.  II  y  a  longtemps  que  j'ai  fait 
ces  reflexions,  et,  par  cette  raison,  je  veux  tons  les  jours 
travailler  a  mon  esprit,  a  mon  anie,  a  mon  coeur,  a  mes 
sentiments.  Voila  de  qnoi  je  snis  pleine  et  de  qnoi  je 
remplis  cette  lettre.  [MADAME  DE  SEVIGNE.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Qnelles  paroles  ne  ponvait  souffrir  Madame  de 
Sevigne  ?      2.    Qne    pardonnerait-elle    plutot    anx    jeniies 
gens  ?     3.    Cette  maxime  est-elle  bonne  dans  la  bouche  d'un 
jenne   homme  ?     4.    Qnelle   opinion   Madame  de   Sevigne 
a-t-elle  de  la  jennesse  ?     5.    Qu'est-ce  qui  est  moins  parfait 
chez  les  jennes  gens  ?     6.    Que  doit-on  faire  quand  on  n'est 
pins  jenne  ?    7.  Les  jeunes  gens  ne  doivent-ils  pas  chercher 
a  se  perfectionner.     8.   N7est-il  pas  plus  facile  de  se  corriger 
quand   on   est   jeune  ?     9.    Que   perd-on    en   vieillissant  ? 
10.    Que  faut-il  alors  chercher  a  regagner  ? 

b)  1.    Quand  Madame  de   Sevigne  a-t-elle  fait  ces   re- 
flexions ?     2.    Quelle  resolution  a-t-elle  prise  ?     3.    A  quoi 
voulait-elle  travailler  tons  les  jours  ?     4.    Pourquoi   rem- 
plit-elle  sa  lettre  de  cette  idee  ?     5.    N'est-il  pas  naturel  de 
remplir  ses  lettres   des  idees  qu'on  a  en  tete  ?      6.    Les 
lettres  naturelles  ne  sont-elles  pas  les  plus  belles  et  les  plus 
agreables  ?     7.    Savez-vous  que  la  marquise  de  Sevigne  fut 
un  des  plus  brillants  ornements  de  la  cour  de  Louis  XIV  ? 
8.    Avez-vous  lu  quelques  unes  des  lettres  adressees  a  sa 
fille,  la  comtesse  de   Grignan  ?      9.    Ne  contiennent-elles 
pas  une  foule  de  details  interessants  ?      10.    Nous  repor- 
tent-elles  en  imagination  dans  les  salons  de  Versailles  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Keview  the  rules  for  the  use  of  a  and  de.     (Preposi- 
tions, pages  94-100.) 

2.  How  is  par  used  (page  102)  ? 


70  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  How  is  pour  used  (page  103)  ? 

4.  Conjugate  the  verbs   vouloir,  remplir,  savoir   in  all 
their  modes,  tenses  and  forms  (pages  59,  44,  57). 

5.  Study  the  rules  for  guoi>  relative  and  interrogative 
(pages  29-30,  33). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Madame  de  Sevigne  thought  no  one  too  old  to 
learn.  2.  Do  you  not  believe  that  one  should  always  try 
to  correct  one's  faults  ?  3.  Why  did  she  think  one 
should  adore  youth  ?  4.  Then  youth  alone  is  not  worthy 
of  admiration  for  its  beauty.  5.  Beauty  of  soul  and  of 
mind  are  much  more  to  be  desired,  do  you  not  think  so  ? 
6.  The  beauty  which  remains  for  a  little  time  is  not  divine 
beauty.  7.  Do  not  people  generally  admire  that,  rather 
than  beauty  of  soul  ?  8.  One  should  try  to  perfect  him- 
self during  his  whole  life.  9.  While  Madame  de  Sevigne 
lived,  she  endeavored  to  make  her  life  beautiful.  10.  Are 
young  men  or  old,  more  satisfied  with  themselves  ? 

&)  1.  Youth  is  often  selfish,  yet  it  is  then  far  more 
easy  to  correct  one's  faults  ?  2.  All  should  seek  to  do 
that,  at  whatever  age.  3.  In  growing  old  we  lose  certain 
beauties,  and  gain  others.  4.  The  letters  of  Madame  de 
Sevigne  always  breathed  the  spirit  of  youth.  5.  After 
having  read  them,  your  admiration  for  the  writer  would 
increase.  6.  Think  over  the  ideas  of  this  letter.  7.  Before 
doing  so,  read  it  carefully.  8.  Was  she  at  home  when  she 
wrote  the  letter?  9.  In  spite  of  old  age  one  can  enjoy 
life.  10.  However,  you  would  like  to  be  among  your 
friends,  would  you  not  ? 


homme,  le  sais-tu,  ce  n'est  pas  peu  de  chose. 
C'est  §tre  patient,  c'est  etre  juste  et  fort, 
C'est  vouloir,  c'est  aimer,  a  toute  noble  cause 
C'est  donner  en  en  tier  sa  vie  et  son  effort, 


\ 


EXERCISES.  71 

C'est  employer  sa  force  a  servir  la  faiblesse, 
C'est  souffrir,  c'est  lutter  avec  les  opprime's  ; 
C'est  vouloir  relever  tons  ceux  que  1'on  abaisse, 
C'est  porter  dans  son  cceur  tons  les  de'she'rite's. 

[MADAME  DE  PRESSENSE.] 


CHAPITRE   XXIX. 

StJLLY. 

Ce  grand  homme  doit  etre  place  au  premier  rang  parmi 
les  plus  remarquables  figures  que  le  passe  a  laissees  en 
exemple  a  notre  siecle.  Nul  ne  merite  plus  d'etre  etudie, 
admire  et  imite.  Quand  on  songe  a  ce  qui,  pendant  qua- 
rante  ans,  est  sorti  de  cette  tete  puissante,  et  tou jours  au 
profit  de  la  France,  on  est  attendri  jusqu'aux  larmes  d'un 
tel  labeur.  Tout  le  monde  se  plaint  aujourd'hui  que  les 
caracteres  disparaissent ;  or  les  jeunes  gens  n'ont  qu'a 
etudier  Sully,  et  ils  trouveront  en  lui  un  des  plus  grands 
hommes  que  la  France  ait  produits  ;  ils  apprendront  de 
lui  comment  on  peut  etre  a  la  fois  hero'ique  et  pratique, 
vaillant  et  prudent,  personnel  et  devoue,  fidele  a  son 
maitre  jusqu'a  Tabnegation  la  plus  absolue,  .mais  fidele 
aussi  jusqu'au  sacrifice  a  ce  qu'on  se  doit  a  soi-meme. 
Jamais  homme  ne  montra  mieux  la  difference  du  mot 
serviteur  et  du  mot  servile,  et  il  est  trois  choses  que  le 
ministre  ne  sacrifia  jamais  a  son  roi  Henri  IV:  sa  con- 
science, sa  dignite,  et  Pinteret  de  la  France.  [ERNEST 
LEGOUV&.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.  Qui  doit  etre  place  au  rang  des  grands  hommes 
de  France  ?  2.  De  qui  Sully  etait-il  le  ministre  ?  3.  Qu'a 
merite  Sully  ?  4.  Combien  de  temps  a-t-il  travaille  pour 
la  France  ?  5.  Quels  sentiments  e'prouve-t-on  &  la  pense'e 
d'un  tel  labeur?  6,  De  quoi  tout  le  monde  se  plaint-il 


72  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

a  present  ?  7.  Quel  modele  Legouve  presente-t-il  aux 
jeunes  gens?  8.  Que  trouvera-t-on  en  Sully?  9.  Que 
peut-on  apprendre  de  lui  ?  10.  Quelles  qualites  distin- 
guait-on  en  Sully  ? 

b)  1.  Ces  qualites  se  trouvent-elles  rarement  reunies  ? 
2.  Qu'est-ce  que  Sully  sacrifiait  a  son  maitre  ?  3.  Le  de- 
vouement  de  Sully  etait-il  servile  ?  4.  Qu'est-ce  que  Sully 
ne  sacrifia  jamais  a  Henri  IV  ?  5.  Sully  etait-il  Hugue- 
not ?  6.  Kesta-t-il  fidele  a  ses  convictions  ?  7.  N'aida-t-il 
pas  Henri  IV  a  pacifier  la  France  ?  8.  Cette  oeuvre  de 
pacification  ne  merite-t-elle  pas  toute  notre  admiration  ? 
9.  Henri  IV  ne  fut-il  pas  le  plus  populaire  des  rois  de 
France  ?  10.  Qui  preferez-vous  de  Henri  IV  ou  de  son 
grand  ministre  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Write  all  the  prepositions  in  the  lesson,  and  give  the 
rules  for  their  use.     (Prepositions,  page  94.) 

2.  After  what  conjunctions,  locutions,  or  phrases,  do  you 
find  a  subjunctive  or  indicative  (pages  78,  104)? 

3.  What  indefinite  adjectives  do  you  find,  and  give  their 
forms  ? 

4.  Conjugate  the  verbs  se  plaindre,  disparaitre,  produire, 
in  all  their  modes,  tenses,  and  forms  (pages  53,  52). 

Theme. 

a)  1.  Sully  belonged  to  the  first  rank  of  the  great  men 
of  his  age.  2.  No  one  merits  more  our  admiration.  3.  No 
one  among  them  is  more  worthy  of  imitation.  4.  He  was 
one  of  the  greatest  ministers  of  his  time.  5.  He  lived  in 
his  palace  surrounded  by  cannon  and  munitions  of  war. 
6.  There  is  a  fine  statue  of  Sully  before  the  Palais  Bour- 
bon in '  Paris.  7.  The  Corps-Legislatif  meets  in  that 
palace.  8.  Sully  possessed  a  fine  mind  and  a  noble  heart. 


EXERCISES.  73 

9.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  the  state.  10.  He 
was  faithful  to  his  master,  the  king,  but  more  faithful  to 
duty. 

&)  1.  Among  the  great  ministers  of  Henry  the  Fourth, 
none  showed  a  purer  character  than  Sully.  2.  In  short 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  which  his  century  pro- 
duced. 3.  All  were  astonished  to  see  him  labor  so  faith- 
fully even  to  the  end.  4.  Everything  he  did  was  for  the 
benefit  of  his  country.  5.  One  should  always  be  faithful 
to  himself.  6.  That  is,  to  his  sense  of  right  and  justice. 
7.  Such  a  character  ought  to  be  a  model  for  the  youth  of 
to-day.  8.  It  is  difficult  for  an  ambitious  man  to  serve 
faithfully  without  regard  to  self.  9.  Henry  IV.  was  a  great 
king,  but  Sully,  according  to  my  idea,  was  the  greater 
man.  10.  A  fine  statue  of  Henry  IV.  stands  on  the  Pont- 
Neuf,  a  bridge  over  the  Seine  in  Paris. 

Oh  !    tu  m^rites  bien  tous  ces  fiers  sacrifices, 
Toi  qui  vins  affranchir  Pingrate  humanit£, 
Ge"nie  impenetrable  a  1'effroi  des  supplices, 
Aiuaute  des  grands  cceurs,  divine  Libert^. 

[EMMANUEL  DES  ESSARTS.] 


CHAPTTRE   XXX. 

Ce  qui  demeure,  c'est  Fesprit  franqais,  dans  le  sens  large 
du  mot,  ce  grand  souffle  ironique  ou  gai  repandu  sur  notre 
peuple  depuis  qu'il  pense  et  qu/il  parle ;  c'est  la  verve 
terrible  de  Montaigne  et  de  Eabelais,  Fironie  de  Voltaire, 
de  Beaumarchais,  de  Saint-Simon  et  le  prodigieux  rire  de 
Moliere. 

La  saillie,  le  mot  est  la  monnaie  tres  menue  de  cet 
esprit-la.  Et  pourtant,  c'est  encore  un  cote,  un  caractere 
tout  particulier  de  notre  intelligence  nationale.  C'est  un 
de  ses  charmes  les  plus  vifs.  II  fait  la  gaite  sceptique  de 


74  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

notre  vie  parisienne,  T insouciance  aimable  de  nos  mceurs. 
II  est  une  partie  de  notre  amenite.    [GuY  DE  MAUPASSANT.] 

Exercice. 

a)  1.    Qu'est-ce  qui  demeure  en  France  ?     2.    Dans  quel 
sens  prenons-nous  1'expression  I' esprit  frangais  ?    3.  Qu'est- 
ce  que  I'esprit  franc^ais  ?      4.    Qui  sont  les  grands  repre- 
sentants   de    cet   esprit  ?     5.    Quel   caractere   a-t-il   dans 
Eabelais?     6.    Et  dans  Voltaire?     7.    Et  dans   Moliere  ? 
8.    Quelle  est  la  monnaie  de  cet  esprit  ?     9.    Qu'est-ce  qui 
est   un   caractere   particulier    de  Intelligence  francaise  ? 
10.    Qu'est-ce  qui  constitue  un  de  ses  charmes  ? 

b)  1.    Qu'est-ce  qui  fait  la  gaite  de  la  vie  parisienne  ? 

2.  Nommez    un    des    caracteres    des    moeurs    franchises. 

3.  Quelle  qualite  existe  a  cote  de  cette  insouciance  ?    4.  La 
gaite  et  Pameiiite  n'ajoutent-elles  pas  au  charme  du  carac- 
tere ?     5.    Croyez-vous  que  tous  les  Francois  soient  insou- 
ciants  ?      6.     Sully  Petait-il  quand  il  travaillait  pendant 
quarante  annees  au  bonheur  de  la  France  ?     7.    Et  Moliere 
quand  il  observait  les   caracteres  ?      8.    Moliere   n?etait-il 
pas  gai  ?     9.    La  gaite  ne  peut-elle  pas  etre  unie  a  la  pro- 
fondeur  ?     10.    Croyez-vous  que  tous  les  gens  a  Pair  serieux 
soient  de  grands  hommes  ? 

Grammaire. 

1.  Eeview  the  rules  for  the  use  of  c'est  and  il  est  (page  28). 

2.  Review  the  rules  for  the  use  of  qui  relative  (pages 
29-30). 

3.  Give  the  feminine  of  all  the  masculine  adjectives  in 
the  lesson. 

4.  Study  the  conjunctive  locutions  which  take  the  indic- 
ative (page  104). 

5.  Study  the  conjunctive  locutions  which  take  the  sub- 
junctive.    (See  page  78.) 


EXERCISES.  75 

Theme. 

a)  1.    What  is  the  character  of  French  humor?    2.    Do 
you  admire  the  whimsical  fancy  of  Rabelais  ?     3.    Some 
prefer  that  of  Voltaire ;  as  for  me,  I  like  the  wit  of  Moliere. 
4.    You  know  it  is  the  flash  of  wit,  the  word  even,  that  is 
the  small  change  of  French  humor.     5.    It  is  a  peculiarity 
of  the  intelligence  of  that  people.     6.    Would  you  think 
from  the  quotation  (citation)  that  the  French  are  always 
thoughtless  ?     7'.    Do   you   think   they  are  more   amiable 
than  their  neighbors  ?     8.    Are  the  peasants  in  France  as 
gay  as  the  Parisians  ?     9.    Life  is  a  serious  thing  to  the 
people.     10.    Maupassant  himself  has  described  some  very 
serious  characters. 

b)  1.    One  can  be  gay  and  yet  strong  and  thoughtful. 
2.    Do  you  think  the  manners  of  the  Parisians  are  the  same, 
as  those  of  the  country  people  (les  provinciaux).     3.   There 
is  a  gay  life  in  the  country,  but  it  is  not  like  that  of  the 
city.     4.    It  is  delightful  to  live  in  the  city.     5.    But  it  is 
also  delightful  to  live  in   the   country.     6.    It   is    Beau- 
marchais  who  is  the  author  of  the  "Barbier  de  Seville." 
7.    Figaro,  the  barber,  was  very  gay  and  full  of  wit.     8.    I 
am  sure  you  would  laugh  heartily  at  some  of  his  sallies. 
9.    The   wit   of   Voltaire   is   often   bitter.      10.    The    gay 
Parisian  life  has  no  longer  any  charm  for  poor  Guy  de 
Maupassant. 

Viens,  ne  marche  pas  seul  dans  un  jaloux  sentier, 
Mais  suis  les  grands  chemins  que  1'humanite'  foule ; 
Les  hommes  ne  sont  forts,  bons  et  justes,  qu'en  foule : 
Us  s'achevent  ensemble,  aucun  d'eux  n'est  entier. 
Malgre"  toi,  tons  les  morts  font  fait  leur  heritier ; 
La  patrie  a  jete'  le  plus  fier  dans  son  moule, 
Et  son  nom  fait  toujours  monter  comme  une  houle 
De  la  poitrine  aux  yeux  Penthousiasme  altier. 

[SULLY  PRUDHOMME.] 


76  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


LA   LUTTE. 

Done,  libres  ouvriers  d'une  tache  be*nie, 
Chacun  selon  sa  force  et  chacun  dans  sa  foi, 
Luttons,  car  1'oeuvre  est  une,  et  la  meme  harmonie 
Murmure  au  fond  de  vous  1'hymne  qui  chante  en  moi ; 

Car  nous  allons  oil  va  toute  la  marche  humaine, 
Oil  vont  tous  les  sentiers,  obscurs  ou  glorieux  ; 
Sous  nos  instincts  divers  la  meme  loi  nous  mene, 
Comme  les  vols  e"pars  des  astres  dans  les  cieux. 

Poursuivons  vaillament  la  tache  commence"e  : 
La  couronne  est  offerte  a  tous  les  combattants  ; 
Quelque  reflet  du  Vrai  luit  sur  toute  pense"e  ; 
Le  concert  de  la  Vie  est  fait  de  tous  les  chants. 

[HENRI  BERNES.] 


PART    SECOND 

GRAMMAR. 

PRELIMINARIES. 

The  French  alphabet  contains  the  same  letters  as  the 
English ;  K  and  W  are  found  only  in  foreign  words,  al- 
though they  belonged  to  the  Old  French  alphabet. 

There  are  three  accents  which  mark  a  certain  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  vowels.  They  are  the  acute  (' ,  accent  aigu)  used 
over  the  vowel  e  (as  in  parle,  *  spoken');  the  grave  (N,  ac- 
cent grave)  used  over  the  vowels  a,  e,  u  (as  in  a  '  to/  des 
'from/  *  since/  ou  *  where')  and  the  circumflex  (A,  accent 
circonflexe)  used  over  every  vowel  except  y  (as  in  mat 
'  mast/  fete  .'  feast.').  These  accents  and  more  especially 
the  circumflex  are  often  the  sign  of  a  contraction. 

The  cedilla  (a,  cedille)  when  found  under  c  preceding  a, 
0,  u  signifies  that  the  letter  has  the  sound  of  s  instead  of  k 
(as  in  facade  *  front  view/  lecon  '  lesson/  re$u  'received'). 

The  dicer esis  (••,  trema)  placed  over  e,  i,  u  denotes  sepa- 
ration in  pronunciation  from  the  preceding  vowel  (as  in 
naif  '  ingenuous/  aigue  '  sharp '). 

The  apostrophe  (',  apostrophe)  marks  the  elision  of  a 
vowel  (as  in  Vhomme  for  le  homme  'the  man'). 

The  hyphen  (-,  trait  d'union)  is  used  as  in  English ;  it  is 
also  used  between  verbs  and  personal  pronouns  in  the  in- 
terrogative,  and  in  the  imperative  affirmative. 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER    I. 


There  are  in  French  ten  parts  of  speech  or  classes  of 
words.  The  noun,  article,  adjective,  pronoun,  verb,  and  parti- 
ciple are  variable;  the  preposition,  adverb,  conjunction,  and 
interjection  are  invariable. 


CHAPTER   II. 
NOUNS. 

Nouns  are  either  proper  or  common,  as  in  English. 

§  1.    Gender. 

French  nouns  are  either  masculine  or  feminine  (mas- 
culin,  feminin). 

The  gender  of  nouns  which  denote  only  male  or  female 
beings  may  be  assumed  from  their  meaning.  Ex. :  liomme 
'  man '  is  masculine ;  so  are  pere  '  father/  frere  '  brother/ 
oncle  'uncle';  femme  'woman'  is  feminine;  so  are  mere 
'  mother/  sceur  '  sister/  tante  '  aunt.'  For  other  words  there 
is  no  general  rule  that  can  be  given  to  beginners;  they 
should  try  to  remember  them  with  the  article,  and  mem- 
orize la  table  not  table. 

§  2.  Number. 

There  are  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural  (singulier, 
pluriel). 

RULE.  —  The  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s  to 
the  singular:  Vhomme  'the  man/  les  hommes  'the  men';  la 
vertu  '  the  virtue/  les  vertus  '  the  virtues.' 

EXCEPTIONS.  —  1.  Nouns  ending  in  s,  x,  or  z  do  not 
change  in  the  plural :  le  Us  '  the  lily/  les  Us  '  the  lilies ' ; 
le prix  'the  prize/  les prix  'the  prizes';  le  nez  'the  nose/  les 
.nez  'the  noses.' 


NOUNS.  3 

2.  Nouns  whose  singular  ends  in  au,  eu,  oeu  add  x  instead 
of   s   to    form   the   plural  :    le  perdreau  '  the   young  par- 
tridge/ les  perdreaux  '  the  young  partridges  ' ;  le  feu  '  the 
fire/  les  feux  '  the  fires } ;  le  voeu  '  the  vow/  les  voeux  '  the 
vows.' 

Bleu  '  blue '  and  landau  '  landau '  are  regular. 

3.  Seven  nouns  in  ou  add  x  in  the  plural.      They  are 
bijou  *  jewel/  caillou  'pebble/  chou  *  cabbage/  genou  'knee/ 
hibou  '  owl/  joujou  '  plaything/  pou  '  louse  ' ;  other  nouns  in 
ou  are  regular. 

4.  Nouns  whose  singular  ends  in  al  or  ail  change  those 
endings  to   aux  in  the   plural.      Cheval    'horse/   chevaux 
'  horses  ' ;  corail  '  coral/  coraux  '  corals/ 

REMARK.  — 1.  The  following  words  add  6-  in  the  plural: 
bal  *  ball/  carnaval  '  carnival/  re</#Z  '  entertainment/  chacal 
'jackal';  camail  'hood/  detail  'detail/  epouvantail  ' scare- 
crow/ gouvernail  '  rudder/  m^u7  '  mall/  portail  '  portal/ 
serail  '  seraglio/  ev entail  '  fan.' 

2.  ^7  'garlic'  has  <mZ#  in  the  plural. 

3.  Betail    '  cattle '    has    properly   no    plural    form ;    les 
bestiaux  is  sometimes  used  in  its  stead. 

4.  del  '  heaven '  has  deux  '  heavens ?  and  fl?i7  '  eye '  has 
yeux  '  eyes '  in  the  plural,  although  dels  and  ceils  are  used 
in  certain  locutions  where  the  words  are  taken  in  a  special 
sense. 

5.  Aieul  'ancestor/  'grandfather'  has  the  plural  aieuls 
in  the  sense  of  grandfathers  or  grandparents,  also  bisaieuls, 
trisaieuls.     Aieux  means  ancestors. 

COMPOUND  NOUNS.  —  Compound  nouns  are  composed  of 
words  joined  by  a  hyphen  (-,  trait  d'union):  chou-fleur 
'cauliflower/  hotel-Dieu  'hospital'  (i.  e.,  hotel  of  God),  arc- 
en-del  'rainbow'  (i.  e.,  arch  in  the  sky). 

The  plural  of  each  component  part  is  formed  separately 
according  to  its  nature  and  meaning.  Ex.:  chou-fleur  has 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

s ;  hotel-Dieu  has  hotels-Dieuf  arc-en-ciel  has  arcs- 
en-ciel. 
REMARK.  —  Notice  a  few  of  the  more  often  recurring  peculiarities. 

a)  Amour  '  love '  is  commonly  said  to  be  masculine  in  the  singular 
and  feminine  in  the  plural ;   but  so  many  exceptions  are  found  that 
this  rule  has  little  value  in  practice,  and  writers  seem  to  use  either 
gender  at  will.     Delice  ( delight '  and  orgue  '  organ '  (musical  instru- 
ment) are  masculine  in  the  singular  and  feminine  in  the  plural. 

b)  Chose  '  thing '  'and  personne  '  person '  are  feminine  as  nouns. 
They  are  masculine  in  the  expressions  quelque  chose  '  something '  (not 
in  quelque  chose  'whatever  thing')  and  personne 'anybody,'  ne  .  .  . 
personne  'nobody.' 

c)  Foudre  'lightning'  is  feminine;  but  figuratively,  with  the  mean- 
ing 'terrible  warrior,'  it  is  masculine. 

d)  gens. '  people,  persons '  is  masculine  when  the  adjective  follows, 
and  feminine  when  it  precedes.    Ex. :  Les  gens  heureux  '  happy  people ' ; 
but  say :  Les  heureuses  gens  que  voila  !  '  What  happy  people  they  are ! ' 
Yet  tons  '  all '  is  always  masculine,  except  when  followed  by  an  adjec- 
tive having  a  distinct  feminine  form.     Ex. :   Tons  les  braves  gens,  '  All 
good  people ' ;  but,  toutes  les  heureuses  gens,  '  all  happy  people. ' 


CHAPTER   III. 

ARTICLES. 

The  article  has  its  place  before  the  noun  with  which  it 
agrees  in  gender  and  in  number. 

A.    The  Definite  Article. 

The  definite  article  is  LE  '  the/  masculine  (masculin),  and 
LA  '  the/  feminine  (f eininin) ;  the  plural  for  both  genders  is 
LES  '  the.' 

ELISION.  —  When  le  or  la  immediately  precedes  a  vowel 
or  an  li  mute,  final  e  or  a  is  elided  and  replaced  by  an 
apostrophe:  Vart  'the  art/  Vlwmme  'the  man/  Z'ame'the 
soul/'  Vamitie  f  the  friendship.' 


ARTICLES.  5 

CONTRACTIONS.  —  The  following  contractions  are  obliga- 
tory:  de  le  into  du\  de  les  into  des\  a  le  into  OM\  ales  into  aux. 

The  definite  article  is  required  in  French  before  all  nouns 
referring  to  an  individual,  determined  object,  person  or 
idea,  distinct  from  all  others  of  the  same  class;  this  indi- 
viduality may  be  a  collective  one  and  does  often  embrace 
the  whole  species  considered  as  distinct  from  other  species. 
Ex. :  La  table  '  the  table '  (i.  e.,  the  table  which  you  see,  the 
above  mentioned  table,  the  table  known  as  an  individuality). . 
Uhomme  est  une  creature  raisonnable,  *  Man  is  a  reason- 
able being'  (i.  e.,  man  as  a  species,  the  whole  species  of 
mankind  as  distinct  from  other  creatures). 

REMARK.  —  1.  Notice  that,  as  a  consequence,  the  defi- 
nite article  is  used  in  French  in  many  cases  where  English 
syntax  would  not  permit  it,  as  in  the  above  example. 

2.  In  French  the  definite  article  is  often  used,  where  the 
English  use  a  possessive  pronoun.  Ex.:  Elle  leva  LES  mains, 
'  She   raised   HER   hands.7     This  takes  place  in  sentences 
where   no    double   meaning  could   occur,  especially  when 
possessive  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  proposition.     Ex.: 
L'komme  parut  LA  plume  a  LA  main,    '  The  man  appeared 
with  his  pen  in  his  hand.' 

3.  The  definite  article  is  used   to   give   a   determinate 
meaning  to  the  noun,  and  on  the  contrary  is  omitted  when 
the  noun  is  used  in  a  general  or  indefinite  sense : 

DEFINITE.  GENERAL. 

Laviede  Vhomme,  'The  man's  Une  vie  d'homme,  'Man's  life- 
life.'  time.' 

L'eau  de  la  mer,  'The  water  in  De  Veau  de  mer,  'Some  salt 

the  sea.'  water.' 

a)    After  prepositions,  adverbs  of  quantity,  and  verbs. 

17  est  dans  LA  ville,  'He  is  in  II  passe   Vhiver  en  ville,  'He 

the  city  '  (i.  e. ,  the  city  of  which        spends  the  winter  in  town  '  (not 
we  know).  in  the  country). 


6 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


b)    With  nouns  in  apposition. 

Louis,  le  roi  de  France,  '  The  Louis,  roi  de  France,    '  Lewis, 

well-known  king,'  or  'the  above-        king  of  France.' 
named  king,  etc.,'  so, 

Henri,  le  roi  d' Angleterre,  etc. 


Le  serpent,  le  plus  dangereux 
des  animaux,  se  cache  dans  Vherbe, 
'  The  serpent,  the  most  dangerous 
of  animals,  conceals  itself  in  the 
grass.' 

c)    In  enumerations. 

L'honneur,  la  raison,  V  inter  et 
vous  obligent  a  changer,  '  Honor, 
reason,  interest  oblige  you  to 
change. ' 

Les  freres,  les  soeurs  et  les  au- 
tres  parents  de  cet  homme,  'The 
brothers,  sisters  and  other  rela- 
tives of  that  man. ' 


Henri,  roi  d'Angleterre,  'Henry, 
king  of  England. ' 

Le  serpent,  animal  dangereux, 
se  cache  dans  Vherbe,  'The  ser- 
pent, a  dangerous  animal,  con- 
ceals itself  in  the  grass. ' 


Honneur,  consideration,  for- 
tune, il  a  tout  perdu,  '  Honor, 
fame,  fortune,  he  has  lost  every- 
thing.' 

Femmes,  enfants,  vieillards 
etaient  descendus, '  Women,  chil- 
dren, old  men  had  alighted.' 


d)    In  proverbial  phrases  or  sentences. 


L^oiswete  est  la  mere  de  tons  les 
vices,  'Idleness  is  the  mother  of 
all  the  vices. ' 


Noblesse  oblige,  '  Nobility  im- 
poses obligations. ' 

Plus  fait  douceur  que  violence, 
'  Gentleness  does  more  than  vio- 
lence. ' 

Hommes,  soyez  justes  et  sin- 
ceres,  'Ye  men,  be  just  and  sin- 
cere. ' 


e)    In  apostrophes. 
Passez  votre  chemin,  lafille, 
*  Go  your  way,  girl. ' 

[LA  FONTAINE.] 

Que  dites-vous,  Vamif  'Friend, 
what  do  you  say  ? ' 

4.  The  definite  article  is  omitted* in  certain  locutions 
where  the  noun  and  the  verb  form  a  phrase  :  avoir  faim 
'  to  be  hungry/  avoir  soif  *  to  be  thirsty/  avoir  honte  *  to  be 
ashamed/  etc.,  prendre  feu  'to  take  fire/  rendre  grace  *io 
return  thanks/  perdre  connaissance  '  to  lose  consciousness/ 
a  dire  vrai  *  to  tell  the  truth.' 


ARTICLES.  7 

5.  The  definite  article  precedes  titles  even  when  they  ac- 
company words  like  Monsieur  'Mr.,  Sir/  Madame  'Madam, 
Mrs./  Monseigneur  'My  Lord';  as  LA  reine  Marie-Antoinette 
'  Queen  Marie  Antoinette ' ;  Monsieur  LE  moire  '  the  Mayor ' ; 
Monseigneur  LE  prince  de  Conti  'My  lord  the   Prince   of 
Conti7;  Madame  la  comtesse  de  Merode  'the   Countess   of 
Merode.' 

6.  The  definite  article  is  used  before  the  names  of  con- 
tinents, countries,  provinces,  rivers,  and  mountains  (not,  as 
a  rule,  before  the  names  of  towns  or  of  individuals,  thus  : 
L'Asie,    V  Afrique,   la   France,   la  Normandie,   la   Seine,   le 
Rhone,  les  Pyrenees,  les  Alpes,  but  Paris,  Londres  '  London/ 
francois  premier  '  Francis  I.' 

EXCEPTIONS.  —  Le  Havre,  le  Mans,  la  Fleche,  a  few  other 
names  of  towns,  and  the  names  of  some  persons,  especially 
those  of  Italians:  Le  Primatice  ' Primaticcio/  le  Perugin 
'Perugino/  etc. 

7.  The  definite  article  is  used  after  the  preposition  A  and 
omitted  after  EN  : 

Aller  a  la  Chine ;  aller  en  Chine  'to  go  to  China ';  arri^ 
ver  au  Mexique  '  to  arrive  in  Mexico ' ;  arriver  en  France 
'to  arrive  in  France';  a  1'hiver  prochain  'next  winter7; 
en  hiver  '  in  winter/ 

8.  The  definite  article  never  follows  its  accompanying 
adjective:  LES  BELLES  MAISONS  or  LES  MAISONS  BELLES  'the 
fine  houses.7 

EXCEPTION.  —  Tout  '  all ? :  as  tous  les  hommes  '  all  men.' 

B.    Indefinite  Article. 

The  indefinite  article  is  masculine  UN,  feminine  UNE.  Ux 
has  a  plural  form  in  QUELQUES  UNS  (some)  and  in  LES  TINS 
ET  LES  AUTRES  '  both '  (i.  e.  the  ones  and  the  others) :  Un 
homme  'a  man/  unefemme  'a  woman.' 

NOTE.  —  DES  is  not  the  plural  of  UN,  but  of  the  partitive, 
which  is  treated  in  the  following  paragraph. 


8  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

C.    The  Partitive  Article. 

By  partitive  we  understand  a  word  pointing  to  a  certain 
indefinite  part,  or  quantity  of  a  thing  or  number  of  things. 
The  partitive  never  determines  an  individuality,  i.  e.,  a 
special,  a  particular  person  or  object,  but  refers  to  any 
part  or  to  any  person  of  a  class.  For  instance  :  II  a  du 
pain  'he  has  bread  or  some  bread7  refers  to  a  certain 
indeterminate  portion  of  bread,  any  kind  of  bread.  Com- 
pare with:  II  a  le pain  'he  has  the  bread'  (i.  e.,  he  has  the 
particular,  the  special  loaf  or  piece  of  bread  known  to  us). 

The  partitive  is  du  (masc.),  de  la,  (fern.),  de  V  (for  both 
genders  before  a  vowel  or  an  h  mute),  des  (plural) 
before  a  noun.  When  the  partitive  stands  before  a  quali- 
fying adjective  or  the  undetermined  object  of  a  negative 
verb  it  is  invariably  de  for  both  genders,  and  for  both 
numbers.  Ex. :  II  a  de  la  fermete  et  du  courage,  '  He 
has  firmness  and  courage.'  Voila  DES  maisons  recemment 
bdties,  '  There  are  some  newly  built  houses.'  Voila  DE 
belles  maisons,  '  There  are  some  fine  houses.'  J'ai  DU 
pain  pour  mes  vieux  jours,  '  I  have  some  bread  (i.  e.,  pro- 
vision) for  my  old  age.'  But  in  a  negative  sentence:  Je 
n^ai  plus  DE  pain,  *I  have  no  more  bread.'  And  again: 
Je  n'ai  plus  du  pain  gue  vous  m'avez  donne,  '  I  no  longer 
have  the  bread  which  you  gave  me,'  because  the  relative 
clause  determines  the  object. 

REMARK.  —  1.  Du,  de  la,  de  l\  des  are  used  before  a 
qualifying  adjective  when  the  latter  is  so  closely  united 
with  its  noun  as  to  form  almost  a  compound  word.  Ex. : 
Des  jeunes  gens  '  young  men/  des  grands  kommes  '  great 
men.'  Observe  that  in  these  cases  the  expression  might 
be  translated  by  a  single  word,  viz. :  Youths,  geniuses. 

2.  Partitive  de  is  used  before  adjectives  even  when  the 
noun  is  understood.  Ex. :  J'observais  des  mouckes;  il  y  en 


ADJECTIVES.  9 

avait  DE  dorees,  v'argentees,  DE  bleues,  DE  vertes,  '  I  was 
watching  some  flies ;  there  were  gold,  silver,  blue  and  green 
ones.'  [BERNARDIN  DE  SAINT-PIERRE.] 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS.  —  1.  A  plural  article  before 
the  proper  name  of  a  person  in  the  plural  means  '  people 
like.'  Ex. :  Les  Louis  XIV ",  '  Monarchs  like  Louis  XIV.7 
Les  Homeres,  '  Poets  like  Homer/  or  perhaps  *  great  poets.7 

2.  The  article  before  plus,  moins,  mieux,  with  which  it 
forms  the  superlative,  is  used  in  two  different  ways. 

a)  It  agrees  with  the  noun  when  the  latter  is  compared 
with   other   objects.     Ex.:    Elle  est  la  plus  heureuse  des 
meres,  '  She  is  the  happiest  of  mothers.7 

b)  It  is    adverbial   and   consequently  invariable   when 
the  noun  is  compared  with  itself.     Ex.:    Elle  est  le  plus 
heureuse  quand  elle  volt  ses  enfants,  '  She    is  most   happy 
when  she  sees  her  children.' 

c)  Sometimes,  on  account  of  an  ellipsis,  a  masculine  ar- 
ticle is  found  before  a  feminine  noun,  and  vice  versa.     Ex. : 
Du   champagne  for  du   (yin  de)   champagne,    '  Wine  from 
Champagne.7       Une   peinture    a    la  Rembrandt,    i.  e.,  a  la 
maniere  de  Kembrandt,  '  A  picture  in  the  style  of  Eem- 
brandt.7     La  Saint-Jean,  i.  e.,  la  fete  de  Saint- Jean,  '  St. 
John7s  Day.' 

CHAPTER   IV. 
ADJECTIVES. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  qualify  it  or 
limit  its  signification.  Hence  two  general  classes,  qualify- 
ing, and  determinative  or  limiting  adjectives.  Example  of 
qualifying  adjectives:  Ion  'good,7  me cha nt  *  wicked,7  gai 
*gay,7  triste  'sad7;  of  determinatives:  mew 'my,7  son  'his,7  ce 
'  this,  that,'  cent  '  hundred,7  plusieurs  '  several.7  The  adjec- 
tive agrees  in  gender  and  in  number  with  its  noun. 


10  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

FORM  OF  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES.    (A.  B.  C.) 
A.    Feminine  Form  of  Adjectives. 

RULE  I. — Adjectives  ending  in  a  vowel  form  their  femi- 
nine by  adding  an  unaccented  e  to  the  masculine.  Ex.  : 
gai,  gaie  'gay7;  ruse,  rusee  'sly/  Adjectives  ending  in  an 
unaccented  e  do  not  change.  Ex. :  tranquiUe  '  tranquil/ 

REMARK.  —  1.  Adjectives  ending  in  gu  take  a  diaeresis 
(trema)  on  the  final  e  of  the  feminine.  Ex. :  aigu,  aigue 
'sharp';  contigu,  contigue  'contiguous.'  The  object  is  to 
keep  the  sound  of  the  u,  otherwise  it  would  disappear  as 
in  long,  feminine  longue  '  long/  or  in  figue  '  fig/ 

2.  Fou  '  mad,  foolish/  mou  '  soft/  beau  '  fine/  vieux  '  old/ 
nouveau  '  new/  have  a  second  form  for  the  masculine,  viz. : 
fol,  mol,  bel,  vieil,   nouvel,  which  is   always   used   before 
a  vowel  or  an  h  mute.     The  feminine  is  always  folle,  molle, 
belle,  vieille,    nouvelle.       Ex. :    Un   bel   homme  '  a  fine    (or 
handsome)  man ' ;  un  beau  livre  '  a  fine  book ' ;  un  fol  espoir 
'  a  mad  hope/ 

NOTE.  —  Jumeau  '  twin '  has  jumelle  in  the  feminine. 

3.  Favori  '  favorite '  and  coi  *  snug'  have  favorite  and  coite; 
traitre  l  treacherous  '  has  traitresse  in  the  feminine. 

RULE  II.  —  Adjectives  of  which  the  masculine  ends  in 
a  consonant  add  an  e  for  the  feminine,  but  some  double 
their  final  consonant  or  modify  their  ending  in  some  way 
before  this  added  e. 

REMARK.  —  1.  Adjectives  ending  in  el,  eil,  ol,  ul,  en,  on, — 
et,  ot,  —  as,  es,  ais,  os,  generally  double  the  final  consonant 
and  add  e  for  the  feminine.  Ex.  :  Cruel,  cruelle  'cruel'; 
pareil,  pareille  '  similar  ' ;  fol,  folle  '  foolish,  mad ' ;  nul, 
nulle  '  no,  not  any ' ;  ancien,  ancienne  '  ancient,  old ' ;  bon, 
bonne  '  good ' ;  muet,  muette  '  mute  ' ;  bellot,  bellotte  '  pretty, 
neat ' ;  bas,  basse  '  low  ' ;  expres,  expresse  '  express/  and 


ADJECTIVES.  11 

profes,  professe  'professed'    (without  the  accent);    epais, 
epaisse  'thick';    gros,  grosse  'large,  fat.' 

EXCEPTIONS.  —  a)  Adjectives  in  ot  do  not  always  double 
the  t\  Ex.:  devot,  devote  'devout';  some  adjectives  in  et, 
instead  of  doubling  the  t,  add  e  and  take  a  grave  accent 
on  the  preceding  e.  Ex. :  Complet,  complete  '  complete ' ; 
discret,  discrete  '  discrete ' ;  secret,  secrete  '  secret,  private.' 

b)  Adjectives  in  as,  ais  and  os  do  not  always  double  the 
final  consonant.     Ex. :  Has,  rase  '  shorn ' ;  anglais,  anglaise 
'  English  ' ;  eclos,  eclose  '  blown,  opened.' 

c)  Absous  '  absolved '  and  dissous  '  dissolved '  have   ab- 
soute  and  dissoute  in  the  feminine.     Dispos  '  active,  well '  is 
not  used  in  the  feminine. 

2.  Adjectives  ending  in  eur  and  teur  form  their  feminine 
in  four  ways. 

a)  Those    ending   in   ieur,  and  some  in  eur,  as  majeur 
'  major,'   mineur  '  minor,'   meilleur  '  better,'   exterieur  '  ex- 
terior,' anterieur  '  anterior,'  add  an  e  for  their  feminine. 

b)  Others  change  eur  into  euse.    Ex. :  Trompeur,  trompeuse 
'  deceitful.'     (They  are  generally  derived  from  verbs.) 

c)  Others  again  change  eur  into  eresse.     Ex.:   Vengeur, 
vengeresse    '  revengeful ' ;     enchanteur,    enchanteresse    '  en- 
chanting.' 

d)  Others  change  teur  into  trice.  Ex. :  Corrupteur,  corrup- 
trice  'corrupting';  producteur,  productrwe  'productive.' 

3.  Adjectives  ending  in  r  (not  in  eur)  form  their  femi- 
nine by  the  simple  addition  of  an  e-,  but  if  the  r  is  im- 
mediately preceded  by  an  e,  that  letter  £akes  a  grave  accent 
in  the  feminine.    Ex. :  Fier,  fiere  'proud' ;  etranger,  etrangere 
'  foreign.' 

4.  Adjectives  ending  in  c  form  their  feminine  either  in 
die,  like  franc,  franche  '  frank,  free  ' ;  sec,  secke  '  dry ' ;  or  in 
que  like  public,  publique  ' public.'     Grec '  Greek'  has  Grecque. 


12  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

5.  Adjectives  ending  in  /  change   that  letter  into  ve. 
Ex.:  neufy  neuve  'new';  bref,  breve  'briei'.' 

6.  Final  g  takes  ue  for  the  feminine.     Ex. :  long,  longue 
'long.' 

7.  Malm  '  malign '  and  benin  '  benign '  have  maligne  and 
benigne. 

8.  Tiers  '  third '  has  tierce  and  frais  '  fresh/  fraiche. 

9.  Einal   cc  changes    into   se.      Ex.:    Envieux,    envieuse 
'  envious  ' ;  jaloux,  jalouse  '  jealous.7     But  c&mx  '  sweet '  has 
douce  and  vieux  '  old '  or  vm7  has  vieille ;  faux  *  false ?  has 
fausse ;  roux  *  reddish ?  has  rousse. 

EXCEPTION.  —  The  feminine  of  grand  in  certain  locu- 
tions is  now  written  with  an  apostrophe.  Ex. :  Grand9 mere 
'  grandmother.'  This  is  not  an  elision,  but  a  remnant  of 
the  old  French  form,  and  usage  has  committed  an  error  by 
inserting  the  apostrophe. 

B.   Plural  Forms  of  Adjectives. 

GENERAL  RULE.  —  The  plural  of  adjectives  is  formed  by 
the  addition  of  an  s  to  the  singular.  Adjectives  ending  in 
s  or  x  do  not  change.  Tout  (masc.)  '  all '  has  tous  in  the 
plural,  but  the  feminine  plural  toutes  is  regular. 

REMARK.  —  1.  Adjectives  ending  in  eau  take  x  in  the 
plural.  Ex. :  beau,  beaux  *  handsome/  *  fine/  nouveau,  nov. 
veaux  '  new.' 

2.  Adjectives  in  al  change  that  ending  into  aux.  Ex.: 
egal,  egaux  '  equal.' 

Fatal  *  fatal'  has  fatals;  but  a  certain  number  of  adjec- 
tives in  al  like  glacial  '  glacial/  colossal  '  colossal/  frugal 
*  frugal/  matinal  '  pertaining  to  the  early  morning/  nasal 
'  nasal/  etc.,  are  not  used  in  the  masculine  plural. 

REMARKS.  —  -  Notice  the  following  peculiarities  about 
the  agreement  of  adjectives: 


ADJECTIVES.  13 

a)  Nu  '  naked,  bare/  is  invariable  as  a  compound  with  a 
noun.     It  is  then  placed  before   the  noun  which  is  used 
without  an  article.     11  marche  nu-pieds  et  tete  nue,  '  He  walks 
barefooted  and  with  a  bare  head.'     In  other  cases  nu  is 

.  regular. 

b)  Demi  *  half/  is  treated  like  nu.     Ex. :  Une  demi-heure 
*  half  an  hour ';  but  une  keure  et  demie  '  an  hour  and  a  half.' 

c)  Ci-joint,  ci-inclus  '  here   enclosed/  are   invariable  at 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence  and  when  the  following  sub- 
stantive is  used  without  the  article;  in  other  cases  they  are 
regular.     Ex. :  Ci-joint  la  lettre  de  ma  sceur,  '  Enclosed  find 
my  sister's  letter.'     Vous  trouverez  ci-inclus  copie  du  contrat, 
'  You  will  find  enclosed  a  copy  of  the  contract.'     But,  Vous 
trouverez    ci-incluse    la    copie    que   je    vous    avals   promise, 
'  Enclosed  you  will  find  the  copy  which   I  had  promised 
you.' 

d)  Feu  '  late,  deceased '  is  invariable  when  it  does  not 
immediately  precede  its  noun.     Ex. :  La  feue  reine,  or  feu 
la  reine  '  the  late  queen.' 

C.    Comparison  of  Adjectives. 
POSITIVE,  COMPARATIVE,  AND  SUPERLATIVE. 

Qualifying  adjectives  may  be  in  the  positive  degree,  that 
is  in  the  simple  form;  or  in  the  comparative  degree  marking 
equality,  superiority,  or  inferiority;  or  in  the  superlative 
degree  which  marks  a  quality  in  the  highest  or  the  lowest 
degree. 

The  comparative  is  indicated  in  French  by  the  adverbs 
aussi  'as/  plus  '  more/  moins  ' less.'  Ex. :  II  est  AUSSI  grand 
QUE  moi,  PLUS  instruit  QUE  Louis  et  MOINS  age  QUE  nous, 
'  He  is  as  tall  as  I,  better  informed  than  Louis,  and  not  so 
old  as  we.' 

NOTE.  —  1.  The  second  term  of  a  comparison  begins  with 
QUE  '  than/  '  as.' 


14  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  only  comparative  not  requiring  a  corresponding 
word  in  the  first  term  is  comme  '  as/  implying  equality  in  the 
way,  the  manner.  Ex. :  II  est  grand  et  beau  comme  son  fr ere, 
'  He  is  tall  and  handsome  like  his  brother.'  II  est  heureux 
comme  moi,  'He  is  happy  in  the  same  way  that  I  am,'  The 
superlative  is  formed  by  the  adverbial  expressions,  le  plus 
'the  most  or  the  best';  le  moins  'the  least  or  the  worst.' 
Ex. :  II  est  LE  PLUS  instruit  et  LE  MOINS  vain  des  homines, 
'  He  is  the  most  learned  and  the  least  vain  of  men.'  TRES, 
BIEN,  or  FORT  '  very/  placed  before  an  adjective,  marks  that 
the  quality  exists  in  a  very  high  degree. 

EXCEPTIONS.  —  Bon  '  good '  has  in  the  comparative 
meilleur  'better/  superlative  le  meilleiir  'best';  mauvais 
'  bad '  has  in  the  comparative  pire  '  worse/  superlative  le  pire 
'worst';  petit  'little/  comparative  moindre '  less/  superlative 
le  moindre  '  least.'  Plus  mauvais  and  le  plus  mauvais,  plus 
petit  and  le  plus  petit  are  also  correct. 

D.  Determinative  Adjectives. 

There  are  five  classes  of  determinative  or  limiting  adjec- 
tives: numerals,  possessives,  demonstratives,  interrogatives 
and  indefinites. 

1.    Numeral  Adjectives. 

Cardinal  numeral  adjectives  express  quantity;  ordinals 
mark  the  order. 

CARDINALS. 

1  Un  10  dix  19  dix-neuf 

2  deux  11  onze  20  vingt 

8  trois  12  douze  21  vingt  et  un 

4  quatre  13  treize  22  vingt-deux,  etc. 

5  cinq  14  quatorze  30  trente 

6  six  15  quinze  31  trente  et  un 

7  sept  16  seize  32  trente-deux,  etc. 

8  huit  17  dix-sept  40  quarante 

9  neuf  18  dix-huit  41  quarante  et  un,  etc. 


ADJECTIVES. 


15 


CARDINALS —  Continued. 


50  cinquante 

51  cinquante  et  un,  etc. 

60  soixante 

61  soixante  et  un,  etc. 

70  soixante-dix 

71  soixante  et  onze 

72  soixante-douze 

73  soixante-treize 

74  soixante-quatorze 

75  soixante-quinze 

76  soixante-seize 

77  soixante-dix-sept 

78  soixante-dix-huit 

79  soixante-dix-neuf 


80  quatre-vingts 

81  quatre-vingt-un     (notice    the 

suppression  of  et) 

82  quatre-vingt-deux,  etc. 

90  quatre-vingt-dix 

91  quatre-vingt-onze      (compare 

with  soixante  et  onze,  soi- 
xante-douze, etc.) 

100  cent  (not  un  cent) 

101  cent  un 

150  cent  cinquante 

200  deux  cents 
1000  mille  (not  un  niille) 
2000  deux  mille 


1,000,000  un  million,  etc. 


ORDINALS. 

Premier,  first, 

Second  or  deuxieme,  second, 

Troisieme,  third, 


Quatrieme,  fourth, 
Cinquieme,  fifth, 
Sixieme,  sixth,  etc. 


N.  B.  Other  ordinals  are  formed  by  adding  ieme  to  the 
cardinals ;  if  there  is  a  final  e  mute  it  disappears. 

INFLECTION.  —  Un  lias  the  feminine  line ;  vingt  and  cent 
take  s  in  the  plural  when  multiplied  by  another  number 
and  not  followed  by  a  number.  Ex. :  deux  cents  personnes, 
but  deux  cent  vingt  personnes;  quatre-vingts  livres,  but  quatre- 
vingt-deux  livres. 

The  French  use  cardinal  numbers  for  the  day  of  the 
month  and  after  names  of  sovereigns ;  premier  '  first ?  is  the 
only  general  exception.  Ex. :  Le  deux  mars  *  the  second  of 
March ' ;  le  premier  Janvier  *  the  first  of  January ' ;  Fran- 
<?ois  premier  '  Francis  the  First ' ;  Henri  deux  *  Henry  the 
Second ' ;  Charles  deux  '  Charles  the  Second.7  Exceptionally, 
Charles-Quint,  '  Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany/  and 
Sixte- Quint,  'Pope  Sixtus  V.' 


16  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

2.    Possessive  Adjectives. 
The  possessive  adjectives l  are  :* 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Masculine.          Feminine.  Masculine  and  Feminine. 

Mon  mon,2  ma  mes  'my,' 

Ton  ton,'2  ta  tes  '  thy,  your,' 

Son  son,'2  sa  ses  'his,  her,' 

Notre  notre  nos  '  our, ' 

Votre  votre  vos  'your,' 

Leur  leur  leurs  'their.' 

REMARK.  —  1.  Whenever  the  possessive  adjective  refers 
to  the  subject  of  the  clause  and  can  be  suppressed  without 
ambiguity  it  is  replaced  by  the  article  or  by  a  personal 
pronoun  as  indirect  object.  Ex. :  J'ai  mal  a  la  tete  '  my 
head  aches  ? ;  je  me  suis  fait  mal  au  pied  '  I  have  hurt  my 
foot ';  il  s-est  casse  le  bras  '  he  has  broken  his  arm.' 

2.  En  is  used  instead  of  the  possessive  son,  leur,  etc., 
when  the  possessed  object  belongs  to  an  inanimate  object 
expressed  in  a  preceding  clause.  (Not  in  the  same  clause.) 
Ex.:  J'aime  ce  livre,  quoique  fen  voie  les  imperfections, 
*  I  like  that  book  although  I  see  its  defects/  But  J'aime 
mon  ami,  quoique  je  voie  ses  imperfections,  '  I  love  my 
friend  although  I  see  his  imperfections ' ;  and  also  faime 
la  campagne  avec  tous  ses  inconvenients,  '  I  like  the  country 
with  all  its  disadvantages.7 

3.    Demonstrative  Adjectives. 
The  demonstrative  adjectives  are: 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Masculine.  Feminine.  Masc.  and  Fern. 

Ce,  cet,  'this,'  'that,'     cette  'this,  that,'  ces  'these,  those,' 

Ce  or  cet  .  .  .  ci,          cette  .  .  .  ci,  ces  .  .  .  ci, 

Ce  or  cet  .  .  .  la,          cette  .  .  .  la,  ces  ...  la. 

1  These  words  are  true  adjectives  in  French  and  must  be  so  considered 
and  treated ;  they  agree  with  the  noun  following  them. 

2  The  forms  inon,  ton,  son  are  used  in  the  feminine  hefore  a  vowel,  or  an 
h  mute.     Ex.  :mon     ardeur  'my  ardor,'  but  ma  patrie  'my  fatherland' 
(i.  e.,  country). 


ADJECTIVES.  17 

REMARK.  —  1.  The  form  ce  is  used  before  a  consonant, 
cet  before  a  vowel  or  an  h  mute.  Ex.:  Ce  monsieur  'this 
or  that  gentleman/  cet  homme  '  this  or  that  man/  cet  enfant 
'this  or  that  child/' 

2.  The  noun  is  placed  between  ce,  cet,  or  c#s  and  ci  or  Za; 
ct  refers  to  the  nearer,  la  to  the  farther  object.  Ex.:  Ce 
soldat-ci  'this  soldier/  ce  soldat-la  'that  soldier'  ;  ce#e 
femme-ci  'this  woman'  (near  or  just  referred  to),  cette 
femme-la  'that  woman'  (more  remote). 

*  4-   Interrogative  Adjective. 

The  interrogative  adjective  is  : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Masc.  Fern.  Masc.  Fern. 

Quel  quelle  quels  quelles  '  what. ' 

These  forms  are  also  used  as  EXCLAMATIVES  in  the  sense 
of  'what  a.'  Ex.:  Quel  homme  vous  etesl  'What  a  man 
you  are ! ' 

5.    Indefinite  Adjectives. 

Indefinite  adjectives,  like  articles,  are  placed  before  a 
substantive ;  but  they  show  that  persons  or  things  are  not 
to  be  taken  in  a  definite  or  precise  manner. 

They  are  the  following,  each  given  with  a  noun  as  an  ex- 
ample of  its  use: 

1.  Un  homme  '  a  man/  une  femme  '  a  woman.' 

2.  Aucun  (=  pas  uri).     Aucun  homme  '  not  any  man.' 

3.  Nul  'no.'     Nuls  frais  'no  expense.' 

4.  Chaque  '  each '  (used  only  in  the  singular).     Chaque 

homme  '  each  man.' 

• 

5.  Plusieurs  'several'  (used  only  in  the  plural).  Plusieurs 
amis  '  several  friends.' 

6.  Tout  '  every,  all/    fern,   toute,   plu.    tons,  fern,   toutes. 
Toutes  verites  no  sont  pas  bonnes  a  dire  '  all  truths  are  not 
good  to  be  uttered ';  a  tous  moments  '  at  all  times.' 


18  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

7.  Tel  '  such/  fern,  telle,  plu.  tels,  fern,  idles.     Telles  et 
telles  persomies,  *  Such,  and  such  persons.7 

8.  Quelque  '  some/  plu.  quelques.    Quelque  personne  pour- 
rait  croire,  '  Some  person  might  believe  it/ 

REMARK.  —  1.  Tout  is  an  adverb  and  consequently  inva- 
riable when  it  means  quite,  entirely r;  in  that  case  it  usually 
precedes  an  adjective  or  adverb.  Ex.:  II  est  tout  attentif, 
'He  is  quite  attentive';  Tout  uniment,  'Very  plainly,  simply/ 
or  even  a  noun.  Ex. :  II  est  tout  oreilles,  '  He  is  all  ears.' 
But  tout  agrees  with  its  noun  like  an  adjective  whenever  it 
precedes  a  feminine  adjective  or  a  participle  beginning 
with  a  consonant  or  an  h  aspirate.  Ex. :  Cette  femme  est 
toute  bonne,  '  That  woman  is  very  kind '  (i.  e.,  all  kind- 
ness) ;  Elles  sont  toutes  troublees,  '  They  are  very  much 
disturbed.' 

2.  Quelque  is  an  adjective  when  it  means  some  or  a  few. 
Ex. :  Quelques  hommes,  'A  few  men.'  It  is  an  adverb  when  it 
means  about,  nearly.  Ex.:  II  y  a  quelque  cinquante  ans, 
*  About  fifty  years  ago.' 

Quelque  .  .  .  que  is  adjective  before  a  noun,  or  an  adjec- 
tive immediately  followed  by  its  noun;  it  is  an  adverb 
before  an  adjective,  a  participle  followed  by  que  and  a  verb 
like  etre,  paraitre,  or  an  adverb.  Ex. :  De  quelques  superbes 
distinctions  que  se  flattent  les  hommes,  Us  ont  tous  la  meme 
origine,  '  Whatever  lofty  distinction  men  may  arrogate  to 
themselves,  they  all  have  the  same  origin.'  Quelque  me- 
diants que  soient  les  hommes,  Us  n'oseraient  paraitre  enne- 
mis  de  la  vertu,  *  However  wicked  men  may  be,  they  dare 
not  appear  to  be  enemies  of  all  virtue.' 

Quel  que  (in  two  words)  used  before  the  verb  etre  is 
variable.  Ex. :  Quelle  que  soit  Vhabilete  de  cet  homme,  il 
ne  reussira  pas,  'However  skillful  that  man  may  be,  he 
will  not  succeed.' 


PRONOUNS.  19 

CHAPTER    V. 
PRONOUNS. 

The  French,  pronoun  is  a  word  which  performs  in  a  sen- 
tence the  function  of  a  noun.  It  generally  stands  for  the 
noun  to  which  it  refers  and  thus  avoids  its  repetition.  It 
may  sometimes  refer  to  a  whole  sentence;  in  this  case  it  is 
really  a  neuter  and  remains  invariable.1  1 1^  never  accom- 
panies a  noun  to  determine  it  ;  this  is  the  function  of  an 
adjective.  Ex.:  IL  ME  parle,  'He  speaks  to  me.'  Elle  est 
belle ,  elle  le  sait,  '  She  is  beautiful,  she  knows  it.'  Qu'il  ait 
ete  heureux  dans  son  entreprise,  je  le  crois  volontiers,  'That 
he  should  have  been  successful  in  his  undertaking,  I  can 
readily  believe'  (i.  e.,  believe  it).  But  in  sentences  like  Son 
pere  est  bon,  'His  father  is  good-natured/  son  is  an  adjective. 

There  are  six  classes  of  pronouns  :  Personal,  Possessive, 
Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite. 

A.    Personal  Pronouns. 

Personal  pronouns  are  either  conjunctive  or  disjunctive. 
Conjunctive  pronouns  are  those  that  are  construed  imme- 
diately with  a  verb  as  subject  or  object.  Disjunctive  pro- 
nouns are  those  that  are  used  after  prepositions  or  in  appo- 
sition. Conjunctive  pronouns  used  as  objects  may  be  direct 
or  indirect  (representing  the  Latin  dative),  but  if  a  prepo- 
sition is  required  the  disjunctive  pronoun  must  be  used. 

a.    CONJUNCTIVE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  6.    DISJUNCTIVES. 

Subject.  Object. 


Sing.{; 


[  tu  'thou'  (you),   te  'thee,  to  thee,  for  thee,' 2   toi  'thou,thee,to thee,' 
Masc.   il  'he,  it,'  Ze'him,it,'2  {  lui  'to  him,'    lui  'he,  him,  to  him, 

Fern,    elle  'she,  it,'       la  'her,  it,'  (  'to  her, to  it,'    elle  'she,  her.'  [to  her,' 

1  Le  (neuter)  may  also  be  a  synonym  of  cela,  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  or  even 
follow  an  intransitive  in  certain  locutions.    Ex.:   Je  me  le  tiens  pour  dit,  'I  con- 
sider it  said  once  for  all.'    With  the  verb  etre,  it  often  refers  to  a  preceding  past 
part.    Ex. :  II  cut  aime  comma  il  merite  de  I'&tre,  'He  is  loved  as  he  deserves.' 

2  Je,  me,  te,  le  become  f ,  m\  t',  I'  before  a  vowel  or  an  h  mute. 


20  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

NOTE.  —  Tu,  te,  and  the  corresponding  disjunctive  toi  are 
used  for  intimate  friends,  children,  and  animals,  or  to  ex- 
press strong  emotion.  In  poetry  the  usage  is  the  same  as 
in  English. 

CONJUNCTIVES.  DISJUNCTIVES. 

Plu.  nous  'we,'  nous  'us,  to  us,'        nous  'we,  us,  to  us,' 

vous  'you,'  vous  'you,  to  you,'  vous  'you,  to  you,' 

Us  (masc.) f  they,'   (  les  '  them,'  (  eux  (masc.)  '  they,  them,' 

dies  (fern.) '  they,'  (  leur  '  to  them,'        (  elles  (fern.)  '  to  them.' 

Eisr  and  Y  are  used  for  persons  and  things.  En  signifies 
de  lui,  d'elle;  d'eux,  d' elles;  de  cela  and  sometimes  "  de  moi" 
etc. ;  y  signifies  a  lui,  a  elle,  a  eux,  a  elles,  a  cela,  etc.  Ex. : 
J'aime  cet  enfant  et  fen  suis  aime,  '  I  love  that  child  and 
am  loved  by  him.'  Penserez-vous  a  moi?  J'y  penserai, 
'Will  you  think  of  me  ?  I  shall  think  of  you.' 

The  reflexive  pronoun  of  the  third  person  sing,  is  se 
conjunctive,  and  soi  disjunctive.  Se  is  both  direct  and 
indirect;  soi  is  indirect.  They  mean  "himself,  herself, 
itself,  one's  self,  to  himself,  to  herself,'  etc.  Se  is  also  the 
conjunctive  reflexive  pronoun,  both  direct  and  indirect  of 
the  third  person  plur.,  and  means  *  themselves,  to  them- 
selves.' For  the  uses  of  soi  see  page  25.  For  the  use  of 
reflexive  pronouns  see  conjugation  of  reflexive  verbs. 

REMARK. —  1.  For  the  third  person  especially,  in  the 
singular  and  the  plural  the  English  rendering  must  be 
modified  according  to  the  sentence,  as  the  classification  in 
gender  is  different  in  the  two  languages. 

2.  Je,  me,  te,  le,  la,  se  elide  their  vowel  before  another 
vowel  or  before  an  h  mute.     Ex. :  J' } arrive,  *  I  come,'  Elle 
m'apercoit,  '  She  sees  me.' 

3.  The  forms  moi,  toi,  and  soi  are  replaced  by  m',  t'}  s', 
when  they  immediately  precede   en  or  y.     Ex.:    Donnez- 
mjen,  'Give  me  some  (i.  e.,  of  it).'     (See  pages  24  and  25.) 


PRONOUNS.  21 

To  the  disjunctive  personal  is  often  appended  the  word 
meme  '  self '  (sing.) ;  in  the  plural  it  becomes  memes  *  selves ' 
except  when  the  pronoun  refers  to  one  person.  Ex. :  Vous- 
meme  (you,  yourself)  refers  to  one  person,  vous-memes  (you, 
yourselves)  refers  to  several  persons.  In  the  plural  autres 
is  used  with  similar  value  after  nous  and  vous.  Ex. :  Nous 
autres  'as  for  us.' 

REMARK.  —  Nous-memes  emphasizes  the  faet  that  the 
action  or  situation  refers  to  ourselves,  while  nous  autres 
places  us  in  opposition  to  others.  Ex. :  Nous  avons  fait  cela 
nous-memes,  '  We  have  done  it  ourselves.'  Nous  autres  nous 
avons  travaille  pendant  que  vous  vous  reposiez,  *We  hare 
been  at  work  while  you  were  resting.' 

Uses  of  the  Conjunctive  forms. 

The  conjunctive  forms  are  generally  used  as  subject  and 
direct  object  of  verbs,  and  as  indirect  object  whenever 
they  are  not  dependent  on  a  preposition.  Ex. :  Je  vois,  '  I 
see.'  II  me  voit,  '  He  sees  me.'  II  me  donne  son  livre,  '  He 
gives  me  his  book.'  Exceptions  are  noted  immediately 
below. 

Uses  of  the  Disjunctive  Forms. 

Disjunctive  forms  are  used: 

1.  After  a  preposition.     Ex.:    Ce  livre  est  a  moi,  'This 
book  is  mine ';  pour  moi  *  for  me.' 

2.  In  apposition  and  as   an  attribute   after   etre.     Ex. : 
Moi,  je  suis  venu  le  premier,  '  I  was  the  first  to  come.'     II 
ne  sait  pas  ce  qu'il  dit,  lui,  '  He  does  not  know  what  he  is 
saying.'     Lui  et    moi  nous  sommes  amis,    '  He   and   I   are 
friends.'     C'est  lui,  'It  is  he.'     Ce  sont  eux,  'It  is  they.' 

NOTE.  —  The  pupil  should  notice  carefully  the  forms 
C  'est  moi  '  it  is  I,'  c'est  toi  '  it  is  thou,'  c'est  lui  '  it  is  he,' 
c'est  elle  '  it  is  she,'  Jest  nous  '  it  is  we,'  c'est  vous  '  it  is 


22  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

you/   ce  sont  eux>  ce  sont  elles  '  it  is  they/  the  verb  being 
in  the  plural  with  the  plural  pronouns  of  the  third  person. 

REMARK.  —  In  emphatic  sentences  the  conjunctive  pro- 
noun is  sometimes  omitted;  the  disjunctive  is  then  used 
as  the  subject.  Ex.:  Lui^  ?ie  salt  pas  ce  qu'il  dit,  'As  for 
him,  he  does  not  know  what  he  is  saying.' 

3.  When  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  are  the  subject  of  a  verb; 
Charles  et  lui  iront  a  la  campagne,    'Charles  and  he  will  go 
to  the  country.' 

4.  When  the  pronoun  is  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb 
that  is  not  expressed.     Qui  va  la  ?  moi,  '  Who  is  there?  I.7 
H  est  plus  agile  que  moi,  '  He  is  more  active  than  I.'      Qui 
de  nous  preferes-tu  ?  Toi,  'As  for  you  (thou),  which  of  us  do 
you  (dost  thou)  prefer?    I  prefer  you.' 

5.  When  it  is  separated  from  the  verb  by  qualificatives 
or  by  an  incidental  clause.     Ex. :  Lui  si  bon  et  si  juste,  ne 
voudrait  pas  vous  faire  du  mal,  '  He,  so  kind  and  so  just, 
would  not  do  you  any  harm.'    Moi,  qui  vous  ai  vu  naitre, 
ne  voudrais  pas  me  separer  de  vous,    '  I,  who  saw  you  born, 
would  not  separate  from  you.' 

REMARK.  —  After  the  affirmative  form  of  the  imperative 
moi  and  toi  are  used  either  as  direct  or  indirect  object. 
Ex.:  Parlez-moi,  'Speak  to  me.'  Aide-toi,  le  del  t'aidera, 
'  Help  yourself,  and  heaven  will  help  you ' ;  but  in  the  nega- 
tive form,  Ne  me  dites  rien,  '  Don't  tell  me  anything.'  Ne 
me  cachez  rien,  'Don't  conceal  anything  from  me.' 

PLACE  OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 
1.   As  Subjects. 

The  place  is,  generally  speaking,  the  same  as  in  English, 
before  the  verb;  but  it  is  placed  in  French  after  the  verb  : 

1.  In  interrogative  sentences  (see  interrogative  conjuga- 
tions). 


I'KONOUNS.  23 

2.  In  inter jectional  phrases  or  sentences  as  dit-il  '  said 
he/  whenever  it  is  preceded  by  the  words  quoted,  or  at 
least  some  of  them.     Ex. :  Je  lirai  ce  livre,  dit-il,  '  I  shall 
read  that  book,  said  he.' 

3.  In    exclamatory   sentences    expressing    desire,   wish. 
Pidsse-t-elle  reussir,  '  May  she  succeed  ' ;   Que  n'a-t-il  ecoute 
/ties  conseils  !  '  Why  has  he  not  heeded  my  advice  ! ' 

4.  In  sentences  introduced  by  certain  adverbs  or  adverb- 
ial locutions,  principally:  a  peine,  au  moins,  du  moins,  en 
vain,  vainement,  and  aussi,  encore,  peut-etre.     Ex. :  Peut-etre 
reviendra-t-il  un  jour,  '  Perhaps  he  will  some  day  return.7 

• 

2.    As  Objects. 

In  French  the  pronoun  as  object  is  placed  before  the  verb, 
contrary  to  English  usage.  Ex. :  II  me  le  donne,  '  He  gives 
it  to  me.'  If  there  are  several  verbs  in  the  sentence,  each 
pronoun  is  now  placed  before  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs : 
Ex.:  Ilfaut  lid  dire,  '  We  must  say  to  him.'  In  the  classic 
French  of  the  17th  century  the  order  was:  11  lid  faut  dire. 
But  if  a  preposition  is  used,  the  pronoun  is  placed  after  the 
verb  and  preposition  as  in  English.  Ex. :  II  s'en  vn  avec 
moi,  '  He  is  going  away  with  me.' 

In  the  imperative  affirmative  the  pronoun  follows  the 
verb  and  is  joined  to  it  by  a  hyphen  (trait  d'union).  Ex.: 
Chantez-moi,  '  Sing  to  me ' ;  but  in  the  negative :  Ne  me 
parlez  pas,  '  Do  not  speak  to  me.' 

If  several  pronouns  occur,  the  direct  object  is  placed 
nearest  the  verb,  except  in  the  third  person  (sing,  and  plu.) 
and  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  precedes  that  of  the 
second  and  third,  and  the  pronoun  of  the  second  person 
precedes  that  of  the  third.  Ex. :  II  me  le  donne,  *  He  gives 
it  to  me ';  but,  II  le  lid  donne,  '  He  gives  it  to  him.'  Je  vous 
le  rends,  '  I  return  it  to  you.'  Le  leur  a-t-il  donne?  *  Has  he 
given  it  to  them?  ' 


24  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

In  the  imperative  affirmative  the  pronouns  are  placed 
after  the  verb,  but  keep  the  same  order  of  precedence.  Ex. : 
Donnez-le-leur,  '  Give  it  to  them.7  In  the  negative  the 
order  would  be :  Ne  le  leur  donnez  pas,  '  Do  not  give  it  to 
them.' 

When  the  pronoun  en  is  used  it  is  placed  nearest  the 
verb.  Ex. :  II  m'en  a  donne,  '  He  has  given  me  some '  (i.  e., 
of  it). 

Y  is  placed  next  the  verb  except  when  used  with  en. 
Ex. :  On  ne  pent  le  connattre  sans  s'y  attacker,  '  One  cannot 
know  him  without  becoming  attached  to  him.'  Y  en  a-t-il? 
'Is  there  any  (of  it)'? 

REMARK.  —  In  the  imperative  affirmative  the  order  is  as 
follows:  Donnez-m'en,  *  Give  me  some.'  (See  forms  of  pro- 
nouns page  20.) 

.NOTE.  —  The  following  scheme  may  be  useful  for  showing  the  order 
of  precedence  of  the  pronouns  : 

Me  \ 

Te  le    "I  lui 

Nous  >  before  la     >  before  ,         >  before  1  and  y  before  en. 

Vous  I  les  J  leUT  >  en  ' 

Se  } 

CONJUNCTIVE  AND  DISJUNCTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

As  Indirect  Objects. 

The   common  indirect    relation    (dative)   is  usually   r 
pressed  by  the  conjunctives  me,  te,  lid,  etc.,  or  sometimes  by 
the  preposition  a  with  the  disjunctive  form,  e.  g.,  a  moi. 
The  latter  occurs: 

1.  After  verbs  implying  motion,  either  real  or  figurative. 
Ex. :  II  vint  a  moi,  '  He  came  to  me.'  H  pense  a  vous, 
'  He  thinks  of  you '  (i.  e.,  his  thoughts  go  towards  you). 
Venir  in  the  figurative  sense  is  an  exception.  77  lui  vint 
en  tete  de parler,  'He  took  it  into  his  head  to  speak.' 


PRONOUNS.  25 

2.  In   all  cases   of   emphatic   distinction.     Ex.:    Je  lui 
donne  ce  livre,  '  I  give  him  this  book ',;  but  Je  donne  ce  livre 
a  lui,  '  It  is  to  him  (not  to  another)  I  give  this  book.' 

3.  When  the  direct  object  is  one  of  the  conjunctives  me, 
te,  se,  nous,  or  vous.     Ex. :  Je  me  fie  a  lui,  '  I  trust  to  him/ 
II  vous  a  envoy  e  a  nous,  *  He  sent  you  to  us.' 

Disjunctive  pronouns  are  very  rarely  used  with  reference 
to  inanimate  objects;  the  reference  with  the  preposition  a 
is  often  expressed  by  y,  that  with  de  by  en;  sometimes  it  is 
expressed  by  other  prepositions,  by  adverbs,  or  by  preposi- 
tions used  adverbially.  Ex. :  Je  le  vois,  je  vais  a  lui,  '  I 
see  him,  1^  am  going  to  him ' ;  but  Je  ne  connais  pas  cette 
ville,  j'y  vais,  '  I  do  not  know  that  city,  I  am  going  there.' 
Je  connais  cette  ville,  j'en  viens,  '  I  know  that  city,  I  come 
from  there.'  Voyez-vous  cette  console?  Mettez  le  livre  des- 
sus,  '  Do  you  see  that  bracket  ?  Put  the  book  on  it.'  II 
a  apercu  son  ami  et  courut  apres,  '  He  perceived  his  friend 
and  ran  after  him.' 

Use  of  Soi. 

1.  Soi  (not  lui  or  elle)  must  be  used  in  connection  with 
indefinite  pronouns,  or  with  the  pronoun  il  (it)  used  as  an 
impersonal.     Ex. :    On  a  souvent  besoin  d'un  plus  petit  qus 
soi,  '  One  is  often  in  need  of  somebody  smaller  than  him- 
self.'    II  ne  faut  pas  toujours  penser  a  soi,  '  We  must  not 
always  think  of  ourselves.' 

2.  It  is  better  to  use  soi  rather  than  lui  or  elle,  with 
names  of  qualities  or  of  inanimate  objects,  but  not  in  the 
plural.     Ex.:  La  paresse  trame  apres  soi  un  grand  nombre 
de  maux,  *  Laziness  brings  in  its  train  a  vast  deal  of  mis- 
fortune '  (apres  elle  would  be  strictly  correct). 

REMARK.  —  Soi  is  sometimes  found  referring  to  a  defi- 
nite person,  but  students  must  not  imitate  such  irreg- 
ularities. 


26 


FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


B.   Possessive  Pronouns.1 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Sing. 

Plu. 

Sing. 

Plu. 

1st  person, 

le  mien 

les 

miens 

la  mienne 

les 

miennes 

'mine,' 

2d 

person, 

le  tien 

les 

tiens 

la  tienne 

les 

tiennes 

'thine,' 

3d 

person, 

le  sien 

les 

siens 

la  sienne 

les 

siennes 

'his,  hers,  its,' 

1st 

person, 

le  notre 

les 

notres 

la  notre 

les 

notres 

'ours,' 

2d 

person, 

le  votre 

les 

votres 

la  votre 

les 

votres 

'yours,' 

3d 

person, 

le  leur 

les 

leurs 

la  leur 

les 

leurs 

'  theirs.  ' 

The  possessive  pronoun  must  refer  to  a  noun  already 
expressed.  However,  a  moi,  a  toi,  etc.,  are  commonly  used 
for  the  English  expressions  mine,  thine,  etc.,  after  the  verb 
to  be.  Ex. :  Ce  livre  est-il  a  vous  ?  '  Is  that  book  yours  ? ? 
Oui,  il  est  a  moi,  '  Yes,  it  is  mine.' 

The  English  phrase  a  book  of  mine,  would  be  commonly 
translated  un  de  mes  livres,  occasionally  un  livre  a  moi  or 
even  un  mien  livre.  This  is  the  only  case  where  mien,  tien, 
sien,  can  be  used  without  the  definite  article;  notre,  votre, 
leur,  are  never  used  in  this  way. 

In  the  singular  le  mien,  le  tien,  etc.,  are  used  absolutely  in 
the  sense  of  my  property  or  my  rights,  etc.  Ex. :  LE  TIEN 
et  LE  MIEN  sont  la  cause  de  tous  les  proces,  c  The  divisions 
of  property  (thine  and  mine)  are  the  cause  of  all  law-suits.' 
II  ne  demande  que  le  sien,  '  He  is  only  asking  for  his  rights.' 

In  the  plural  les  miens,  les  tiens,  etc.,  mean  my  relatives, 
thy  relatives,  etc.,  or  mine  own,  my  own  people,  those  who 
side  with  me,  etc.  Ex. :  J'ai  les  miens  a  contenter,  '  I  must 
please  my  relatives.' 


C.   Demonstrative  Pronouns. 
They  are  : 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

Sing.  —  Celui '  this,  that  one, '        celle, 
Plu.  —  Ceux  'these,  those,'          celles. 


NEUTER. 

ce,2  ceci,  cela  (contraction  ca), 
ceux  'this,  that,  it.' 


1  Compare  with  possessive  adjectives,  page  16. 

2  Ce  before  a  vowel  or  an  h  mute  becomes  c'. 


PRONOUNS.  27 

These  have  for  necessary  correlative  a  noun  or  a  depend- 
ent clause.  Ex.:  Napoleon  est  celui  des  Francais  qui  a  le 
mieux  entendu  la  guerre,  'Napoleon  is  the  Frerchman  (that 
one  of  the  French)  who  has  best  understood  war.'  Celui  qui 
regne  dans  les  deux,  '  He  who  reigns  in  the  heavens.' 

NOTE.  —  The  nominative  of  the  personal  pronoun  of  the 
third  person  must  not  be  used  as  antecedent  of  the  relative ; 
use  the  demonstrative  pronoun  as  in  the  above  example. 

No  adjective  or  participle  should  be  used  in  immediate 
connection  with  these  pronouns.  It  is  incorrect  to  say:  Ce- 
lui regnant  dans  les  deux-,  use  the  relative  clause,  as  above 
given. 

Ce,  as  pronoun,  refers  to  some  qualified  or  determined 
object.  Ex. :  Voila  ce  qui  m'etonne,  'That  is  what  astonishes 
me.'  In  this  way  we  find  ce  qui  '  that  which '  (qui,  subject) ; 
ce  que  'that  which/  (que,  object);  ce  dont  'that  of  which/ 
Ex. :  J'ai  lu  tout  ce  que  vous  m'avez  donne,  '  I  have  read 
all  that  (which)  you  gave  me.'  Ce  dont  vous  parlez  m'e  ton- 
ne, '  What  you  say  astonishes  me/  (i.  e.,  that  of  which  you 
speak,  etc.). 

Notice  that  when  ce  is  the  subject  of  etre,  this  verb 
agrees  in  number  with  the  following  predicate.  Ex. :  Ce 
sont  les  ennemis,  '  They  are  the  enemies/  or  '  Here  are  the 
enemies.'  Ce  n'etaient  que  des  enfants,  '  They  were  but 
children.'  • 

Celui-ci,  in  opposition  to  celui-la,  refers  to  the  nearer 
person  or  object:  celui-la  to  the  farther.  Ex.:  Voyez-vous 
ces  livres  ?  ceux-ci  sont  anglais,  ceux-la  franqais,  '  Do  you  see 
these  books?  these  are  English  and  those  are  French.' 

Ceciy  cela  (familiar  abbreviation,  ca)  are  only  applied  to 
inanimate  objects,  ceci  referring  to  the  nearer,  cela  to  the 
farther  object,  when  they  are  opposed  to  each  other.  Else- 
where they  are  used  indifferently  as  this  and  that  in  English. 
Ex.:  Donnez-moi  ceci  (or  cela),  'Give  me  this  (that).'  Ce 


28  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

is  sometimes  used  for  cela.    Ex. :   On  n'aime  pas  les  vaniteux, 
c'est  certain,  'People  do  not  like  vain  persons,  that  is  sure.' 

C'est  or  II  est. 

Ce  is  demonstrative,  il  is  either  personal  or  impersonal; 
consequently  ce  refers  to  a  preceding  word  or  clause,  or  to 
some  visible  object  that  maybe  pointed  out.  Ex.:  C'est 
bon,  'That  is  right.'  C'est  vrai,  'That  is  true.'  II  is  used 
absolutely  as  in  II  pleut,  '  It  rains.'  II  fait  du  vent,  '  It  is 
windy7;  or  it  implies  a  following  subject.  Ex.:  II  est  vrai 
qu'il  est  seul,  '  It  is  true  that  he  is  alone.' 

C'est   is  used: 

1.  Before  nouns,  or  words  used  as  nouns,  and  pronouns. 
Ex. :    C'est  le  medecin,    '  It  is  the  doctor,'   that  is,  this  man 
is  the  doctor  whom  we  expected,  or  of  whom  we  spoke. 
C'est  une  erreur,  '  It  is  an  error '  (i.  e.,  this  we  have  been 
talking  or  reading  about  is  an  error.)     C'est  lid,  '  It  is  he.' 

2.  Before  superlatives.     Ex. :  C'est  le  plus  beau  des  livres, 
'  It  is  the  most  beautiful  book.'      C'est  le  meilleur  peintre 
queje  connaisse,  '  He  is  the  best  painter  I  know.' 

H  or  elle  personal  may  also  be  used  in  reference  to  per- 
sons. II  est  le  meilleur  des  hommes,  'He  is  the  best  of  men.' 

REMARK.  —  Notice  the  following  construction  which  is 
frequently  used  for  emphasis.  C'est  le  roi  que  j'ai  vu,  '  It 
is  the  king  whom  I  have  seen.'  C'est  a  lui  qu'il  faut 
s'adresser,  '  It  is  to  him  that  we  must  apply.'  11  est  is  used 
before  qualifying  adjectives  and  before  attributive  nouns. 
Ex. :  Oui,  il  est  cruel,  '  Yes  he  is  cruel/  II  est  misdeem, 
'  He  is  a  physician.' 

II  is  also  used  with  impersonal  verbs  or  in  impersonal 
locutions.  Ex. :  II  y  a  '  There  is,  there  are.'  II  fait  beau, 
'  It  is  beautiful '  (speaking  of  weather).  II pleut, '  It  rains, 
or  is  raining."  II  est  temps  d'etudier,  'It  is  time  to  study/ 


PRONOUNS.  29 

D.    Relative  Pronouns. 
The  relative  pronouns  are: 

1.  Qui  'who,  which,  that/  used  as  subject  or  indirect 
object  after  a  preposition. 

2.  Que  '  whom,  which,  that/  direct  object. 

3.  Quoi  '  what '  refers  to  a  proposition,  or  is  used  abso- 
lutely. 

4.  Dont  '  of  whom,  of  which.' 

5.  Lequel  (masc.),  laquelle  (fern.),  plu.  lesquels,  lesquelles 
'who,  which/  used  as  subject.      The  article  is  contracted 
with  the  prepositions  de  and  a  in  the  regular  way.     Ex.: 
duquel,  de  laquelle,  desquels,  desquelles  '  from  or  of  which ' ; 
auquel,  a  laquelle,  auxquels,  auxquelles  '  to  which/  and  in 
these  forms  the  pronoun  is  used  as  indirect  object. 

6.  Oh  '  in  which,  to  which,  where/ 

Qui  and  que  are  used  in  preference  to  lequel,  etc.,  except 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  distinguish  the  genders  or 
numbers,  and  so  avoid  ambiguity.  Ex.:  Un  homme  s'est 
leve  au  milieu  de  V  assemble  e,  lequel  (not  qui),  a  parle  avec 
eloquence,  '  A  man  arose  in  the  midst  of  the  assembly,  and 
(who)  spoke  eloquently.'  C'est  la  fille  de  mon  protecteur 
lequel  est  aussi  votre  ami,  '  She  is  the  daughter  of  my  pro- 
tector who  is  also  your  friend.' 

After  a  preposition  qui  refers  to  animate  beings  only,  and 
quoi  refers  to  a  preceding  proposition  as  a  whole,  or  to  an 
indefinite  thing,  while  lequel  is  used  for  inanimate  things, 
as  well  as  for  persons  or  propositions.  Ex.:  U homme  avec 
qui  je  me  suis  promene,  '  The  man  with  whom  I  took  a 
walk.'  Le  ckeval  a  qui  (or  auquel)  fai  donne  de  Vavoine, 
'  The  horse  to  which  I  have  given  oats.'  C'est  a  quoi  je  njai 
pas  pense,  '  That  is  a  thing  of  which  I  have  not  thought/ 
Vous  ne  savez  pas  a  quoi  il  travaille,  '  You  do  not  know 
what  he  is  working  at.'  C'est  la  table  a  laquelle  je  travaille, 
'  It  is  the  table  at  which  I  work,' 


30  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

The  relative  absolute  (he  who,  whoever,  whosoever)  is 
in  French  qui  for  persons  and  quoi  for  things.  Que  is 
obsolete  in  this  meaning  and  found  only  in  a  few  old  pro- 
verbs like :  Fais  ce  que  dois,  advienne  que  pourra,  '  Do  what 
you  ought,  come  what  may.' 

Quoi  '  what '  is  also  used  absolutely  as  an  exclamation. 
Ex.:  Quoi!  'What!' 

Qui  absolute  is  used: 

1.  As  subject,  especially  in  short  proverbs  or  sentences. 
Ex.:   Qui  dort  dine,  *  He  who  sleeps  dines '  (i.  e.,  sleep  is 
equivalent  to  a  meal).     Sauve  qui  pent,  *  Let  him  save  him- 
self who  can.' 

2.  As  direct  object  and  after  prepositions.     Ex. :  Aimez 
qui  vous  aime,  *  Love  him  who  loves  you.'     (The  French 
pronoun  qui  here  represents  celui  qui).     Allez  eliez  qui  vous 
voiidrez,  *  Go  to  whomsoever  you  please.' 

Lequel,  besides  the  uses  referred  to,  may  be  used  ad- 
jectively  with  a  noun  having  the  value  of  the  English 
"said"  (or  which).  Ex.:  La  gloire  est  le  but  des  ambitieux, 
lequel  but  est  parfois  difficile  a  atteindre,  '  Glory  is  the  aim 
of  the  ambitious,  and  said  aim  (which  aim  it)  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  reach.' 

REMARK. —  Qui  is  preferable  to  lequel  except  when  it 
is  desirable  to  refer  more  definitely  to  the  antecedent  and 
then  lequel  has  the  advantage.  Ex. :  Les  maitres  auxquels 
est  confiee  votre  education,  'The  masters  to  whom  your 
education  is  confided.' 

Dont  expresses  the  relation  of  the  preposition  de  ;  but  it 
should  be  kept  in  mind  that  these  relations  are  not  neces- 
sarily the  same  in  French  and  in  English. 

Dont  may  depend  on  a  noun  which  is  not  governed  by  a 
preposition  and  which  stands  immediately  after  it  or  after 
the  verb.  Ex. :  IJliomme  dont  la  probite  est  connue,  '  The 
man  whose  honesty  is  known.'  Uhomme  dont  nous  con- 


PRONOUNS.  31 

naissons  la  probite,  '  The  man  whose  honesty  we  know.7 
(De  qui  or  duquel  might  be  used.) 

Dont  may  also  be  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb  to  repre- 
sent persons  or  things.  Ex. :  L'homme  dont  (or  de  qui)  je 
Va%  appris  est  digne  de  foi,  '  The  man  from  whom  I  heard 
it  is  worthy  of  confidence.7  Le  Her  re  s' attache  a  Varbre  dont 
il  a  besoiu  pour  croitre,  '  The  ivy  clings  to  the  tree  whose 
support  it  needs.' 

Dont  refers  occasionally  to  a  thought  before  expressed 
or  to  a  clause.  Ex. :  La  mere  Barbeau  se  mit  a  pleurer, 
dont  le  pere  Barbeau  se  mit  peu  en  peine,  '  Mother  Barbean 
began  to  cry,  about  which  father  Barbeau  cared  but  little.7 
[G.  SAND.] 

Ou,  properly  an  adverb  of  place,  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
relative  for  dans  lequel  or  auquel ;  d'ou  is  used  for  duquel 
or  dont.  Ex. :  Vous  avez  vu  ce  fils  ou  mon  espoir  se  fonde, 
'You  have  seen  that  son  in  whom  center  all  my  aspirations.7 
[MoLiERE.]  11  y  eut  un  instant  ou  les  plus  braves  palpi- 
Cerent,  '  There  was  an  instant  when  the  bravest  hesitated  7 
(i.  e.,  in  which  the  bravest  heart  throbbed  from  fear).  II 
arrive  dans  la  vie  des  accidents  d'ou  il  faut  etre  un  peu  foil 
pour  se  tirer,  '  There  are  situations  in  life  from  which  we 
cannot  well  withdraw  without  some  degree  of  rashness.7 
[LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD.] 

D'ou  is  sometimes  used  like  dont  in  reference  to  things. 
Ex.:  Voila  la  maison  d'ou  je  sors,  *  That  is  the  house  from 
which  I  have  come.7 

E.    Interrogative  Pronouns. 

They  are  qui,  que,  quoi,  and  lequel;  these  forms  are  the 
same  as  the  relative  ;  but  students  must  notice  that  they 
are  not  used  in  the  same  way. 

Qui,  que,  and  quoi  are  invariable  ;  lequel  is  masc.  sing., 
the  fern,  is  laquelle,  masc.  plural  lesquels,  fern,  plural  les- 


32  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

quelles ;  in  combination  with,  de  and  a  the  masc.  forms  are 
duquel,  desquels,  and  auquel,  auxquels. 

Qui  is  employed  for  persons,  also  as  subject,  object,  and 
predicate.  Ex. :  Qui  frappe  a  la  porte  ?  '  Who  is  knocking 
at  the  door  ? '  Qui  cherchez  vous  ?  '  Whom  do  you  seek  ?  ' 
Qui  etaient  ces  dames  ?  *  Who  were  these  ladies  ? '  (Notice 
that  the  verb  is  plnral  as  dependent  on  the  subject  ces 
dames,  and  that  qui  is  predicate.)  De  qui  veux-tu  parler  ? 
'  Of  whom  do  you  mean  to  speak  ? ' 

REMARK.  —  Qui-est-ce  qui  sometimes  takes  the  place  of 
qui  subject.  Ex.:  Qui  est-ce  qui  est  la?  or  Qui  est  la? 
'Who  is  there?' 

Qui  est-ce  qui  '  who/  (i.  e.,  who  is  it  who),  is  used  as 
subject  of  a  verb  referring  to  persons.  Ex. :  Qui  est-ce  qui  a 
fait  cela  ?  '  Who  has  done  that  ? '  Another  form  with  the 
same  meaning, but  more  emphatic  is:  Qui  est-ce  que  e'est  qui? 

Qu' est-ce  qui  '  what '  is  used  as  subject  of  a  verb  refer- 
ring to  things.  Ex. :  Qu' est-ce  qui  vous  fdche  ?  '  What  makes 
you  angry  ? '  Qu' est-ce  qui  fait  Voiseau  ?  c'est  le  plumage, 
'  What  makes  the  bird  ?  it  is  his  plumage.'  - 

Qui  is  sometimes  used  as  an  indefinite.  Ex. :  Nos  gens 
s'en  vont  qui  deca,  qui  dela,  '  Our  people  go  away,  some  one 
way,  some  another.' 

Que  is  only  used  as  direct  object  for  things,  not  for 
persons.  Ex.:  Que  cherchez-vous ?  'What  are  you  looking 
for?'  (Qui  would  mean  whom.)  Qu' est-ce  que,  is  often 
used  for  que.  Ex. :  Qu' } est-ce  que  vous  cherchez  ?  '  What  are 
you  looking  for  ? '  Qu' est-ce  que  cela  me  fait  ?  '  What  is 
that  to  me  ?'  (i.  e.,  what  is  that  which  that  does  to  me  ?) 

Qu'est-ce  que  c'est  que  expresses  astonishment,  surprise, 
wonder.  Ex.:  Qu' est-ce  que  c* est  que  cette  logique?  'What 
kind  of  logic  is  that  ? '  Qu' est-ce  que  tfest  que  cet  homme  ? 
'What  under  the  sun  is  that  man  ? ' 


PRONOUNS.  33 

BEMARK. —  1.    The  interrogative  phrase  est-ce  qrue  *  IB  it 

that ?  is  usually  employed  in  the  first  person  singular  of  verbs 
which  end  in  a  vowel  or  in  two  consonants.  Ex. :  Est-ce 
que  je  chante  ?  '  Do  I  sing  ? '  Est-ce  que  je  vends  ?  '  Do  I 
sell  ? '  It  is  also  used  to  express  surprise  or  denial.  Ex. : 
Est-ce  que  je  feral  cela,  moif  '  Shall  I  do  that,  I ! '  Est-ce 
que  is  sometimes  used  with  the  other  persons  of  the  verb. 

2.  The  various  English  interrogative  clauses  of  assent, 
viz.,  Do  you  not?  Is  it  not  so  ?  Don't  you  think  so  ?  etc.,  are- 
all  translated  by  the  same  French  expression  N' est-ce  pas  ? 
which  is  in  most  cases  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
although  it  is  sometimes  found  as  a  parenthesis  after  the 
verb.  Ex.:  Vous  avez  vu  VAngleterre,  n' est-ce  pas?  'You 
have  seen  England,  have  you  not?'  Vous  consentez,  rf  est-ce 
pas,  a  lui  servir  de  guide  ?  '  You  are  willing  to  serve  him  as 
guide,  are  you  not  ? '  It  is  also  used  at  the  beginning  of  a 
clause  when  it  is  followed  by  que.  Ex. :  N' est-ce  pas  que  vous 
ferez  cela  pour  moi  ?  '  You  will  do  that  for  me,  will  you  not  ? ' 

Quoi  is  used  absolutely  for  que  when  the  verb  is  under- 
stood, especially  in  exclamations.  Ex. :  Quoi !  vous  partez 
deja!  'What !  you  are  going  already  !'  "Qu' est-ce  cela?  lui 
dit-il,  —  Rien,  —  Quoi !  rien ?  —  Pen  de  chose"  '  What  is 
that,  said  he  (to  him)?  — Oh  !  nothing,— What  !  nothing? 
—  Oh!  very  little/  [LA  FONTAINE.] 

Quoi  must  be  used  after  prepositions.  Ex. :  A  quoi  pen- 
sez-vous  ?  '  Of  what  are  you  thinking  ? ?  Notice  also  the 
form  A  quoi  est-ce  que  vous  pensez  ? 

Que  followed  by  de  refers  to  number,  quantity,  and  quoi 
to  quality.  Que  d'hommes  !  '  How  many  men  ! ?  Quoi  de 
plus  heureux  !  '  What  (could  be)  more  fortunate  ! ' 

Lequel  absolute  (which  of  two,  which  of  a  number)  refers 
to  persons  or  things.  Ex. :  Lequel  de  ces  garcons  est  votre 
jils  ?  '  Which  of  these  boys  is  your  son  ?  7  Voici  plusieurs 


34  FRENCH    (J  RAM  MAR. 

plumes;  laquelle  voulez-vous?  'Here  are  several  pens;  which 
one  do  you  wish  ?  ' 

F.   Indefinite  Pronouns. 

The  principal  indefinite  pronouns  are: 

1.  On  '  they,  people,  one.'  *     On  always  refers  to  human 
beings  and  is  used  exclusively  as  subject.     It  represents 
the  Latin  homo  (man)  from  which  it  is  derived.       On  is 
generally  construed  in  the    masc.  sing.,  but   occasionally 

"adjectives  are  made  to  agree  with  the  person  or  persons  it 
represents.  It  may  represent  a  first,  second,  or  third  per- 
son, singular  or  plural.  Ex.:  On  dit  que  la  Republiqne 
fran$aise  a  bien  des  chances  de  duree,  '  It  is  said  (i.  e.,  one 
says  or  they  say)  that  the  French  Republic  is  likely  to  en- 
dure '  (i.  e.,  has  many  chances  of  lasting).  Id,  on  est  egaux, 
'  All  are  equal  here '  (i.  e.,  people  are  equal  here).  On 
est  belle,  Madame,  '  You  are  beautiful,  Madam.'  The  word 
on  is  very  often  used  to  avoid  the  directness  of  a  compli- 
ment or  of  a  reproach.  Notice  that  in  many  cases  where 
the  English  use  the  passive  voice,  the  French  prefer  the 
active  Avith  on  as  subject.  Ex.:  On  dit,  'It  is  said.'  On 
dit  qiCil  a  vinyt  ans,  *  He  is  said  to  be  twenty.' 

2.  Quiconque  'whoever,  whosoever'  (=  every  one  who). 
Ex. :    Quiconque  frappera  par  le  fer,  sera  frappe  a  son  tour, 
'  Whosoever  strikes  with  the  sword,  will  be  smitten  in  his 
turn/     Qui   absolute    sometimes    replaces   quiconque,   (see 
page  32). 

3.  Qui  que  ce  soit  qui,  qui  que  ce  soit  que  '  whoever,  who- 
soever, (=  any  man  who),  whomever,  whomsoever  '  (==  any 
man  whom).     Ex.:   Qui  que  ce  soit  qui  vous  Vait  dit,  s'est 
trompe, '  Whoever  (any  man  who)  told  you  so,  was  mistaken.' 

1  On  may  in  practice  represent  any  person,  first,  second  or  third,  sing,  or 
plur.  Vous  is  used  as  objective  case  of  on.  Ex. :  Plus  on  regardait,  plus 
ii  vous  manquaU  de  choses,  The  more  you  looked,  the  more  things  you 
missed.'  [ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN.] 


PRONOUNS.  35 

4.  Quoi   que,  quoi  que  ce  soit  'whatever,  whatsoever.'- 
Ex. :   Quo-iqu'il  me  demande,  je  le  lui  accorde,  *  Whatever  he 
asks  I  grant  to  him.7 

5.  Chacun,  fein.  chacune  (no  plural)  *  each ' .;  used  of  per- 
sons.    Ex. :  La  liberte  de  chacun  a  pour  limites  la  liberte  des 
autres,  '  The  liberty  of  each  individual  is  limited  by  the 
liberty  of  others.'     It  is  also  used  of  things  on  condition 
that  it  shall  refer  to  a  noun  either  preceding  or  following. 
Ex. :  Remettez  ces  livres  chacun  a  sa  place,  '  Put  back  these 
books,  each  in  its  place.' 

6.  Quelqu'un,  quelque  chose  '  some  one  (somebody,  any- 
body), something,'  are  used  only  in  affirmative  sentences. 
Ex. :   Quelqu'un  a-t-il  connu  le  vrai  bonheur  ?  '  Has  any  one 
known  real  happiness  ? '    J' attends  id  quelqu'un,  *  I  am  ex- 
pecting  somebody  here.'     The    plural    quelques  mis  must 
be  used   only    as  subject  of    a  verb.       Ex.:   Quelques  uns 
assurent  le  contraire,  '  Some  persons  affirm  the  contrary.' 

7.  Personne,  rien,  are  originally  nouns  having  the  same 
meaning  as    quelqu'un,  quelque  chose,  and  are    so   used  in 
the  following  cases  : 

a)  In  a  negative  clause  or  after  sans  *  without.'  Ex. :  77 
n'est  jamais  invite  par  personne,  '  He  is  never  asked  by 
anybody.'  [MOLIERE.]  Je  ne  veux  point  qu'il  me  dise  rien, 
1 1  do  not  wish  him  to  tell  me  anything  at  all.  [MOLIEBE.] 

&)  In  interrogative  or  negative  clauses.  Ex. :  A-t-on  vu 
personne  ayir  de  la  sorte?  'Has  one  seen  anybody  act  in 
this  way  ? ' 

c)  After  conditional  clauses.  Ex.:  J'aurais  lieu  de  me 
plaindre  si  vous  me  deguisiez  rien,  '  I  should  have  reason 
to  complain  if  you  were  concealing  anything  from  me.' 

But  generally  personne  and  rien  are  accompanied  by  the 
negative  ne,  and  have  the  value  of  nobody,  nothing.  Ex. : 
Personne  ne  veut  etre  plaint  de  ses  errcurs,  '  Xobody  wishes  to 
be  pitied  for  his  mistakes.'  Je  ne  sais  rien,  *  I  know  nothing.' 


36  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

KEMARK.  —  1.  .Notice  that  in  elliptical  sentences  in 
which,  the  verb  is  understood,  ne  disappears  also,  and  yet  per- 
sonne  and  rien  keep  their  negative  meaning.  Ex.:  Que  voyez- 
vous  ?  Rien,  '  What  do  you  see  ?  Nothing/  2.  Occasionally 
sentences  are  found  where  personne  and  rien  are  used  with 
both  meanings.  Ex. :  Je  ne  suis  pas  un  homme  a  vouloir  rien 
pour  rien,  '  I  am  not  the  man  to  ask  something  for  nothing.' 

[MOLIERE.] 

8.  Ni  Vun  ni  Vautre,  Vun  ou  Vautre,  'Neither  the  one 
nor  the  other,  the  one  or  the  other/  govern  their  verb  in  the 
singular  or  in  the  plural  according  to  the  meaning.  Ex. : 
Ni  Vune  ni  Vautre  n'est  ma  mere,  '  Neither  the  one  nor  the 
other  is  my  mother.'  (Only  one  could  be.)  Ni  fun  ni  V ou- 
tre, ne  valent  rien,  '  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  is  worth 
anything.'  (Both  are  worthless.) 


CHAPTER   VI. 
THE    VERB. 

There  are  in  French  as  in  English  transitive  verbs  (having 
a  direct  object),  and  intransitive  verbs  (having  no  direct 
object),  although  the  fact  that  a  verb  is  transitive  in  one 
language  does  not  imply  that  it  is  so  in  the  other.  For 
instance  obey  is  transitive  in  English,  while  the  correspond- 
ing word  obeir  is  intransitive.  Ex.:  J'obeis  a  mes parents, 
'I  obey  my  parents.'  There  are  also  reflexive  verbs,  i.  e., 
verbs  having  for  object  (direct  or  indirect)  a  personal  pro- 
noun referring  to  the  same  person  as  the  subject;  and  im- 
personal verbs  with  the  indefinite  pronoun  il  *  it,' for  subject. 

There  are  six  modes.  1.  The  indicative,  which  is  the 
simple  statement  of  a  fact  or  a  situation.  2.  The  impera- 
tive, which  expresses  command.  3.  The  conditional,  which 
expresses  an  affirmation  depending  on  an  expressed  or  im- 


VERBS.  37 

plied  condition.  4.  The  subjunctive,  which  expresses  a 
thought  as  subordinate  to  another  and  uncertain.  5.  The 
infinitive,  which  is  the  verbal  noun.  6.  The  participle, 
which  is  the  verbal  adjective. 

TENSES. 

The  French  indicative  has  eight  tenses :  one  present,  five 
past,  and  two  future  tenses. 

The  past  tenses  are:  1.  The  imperfect,  expressing  that 
an  action  has  taken  place,  or  that  a  situation  was  exist- 
ing, at  a  time  not  strictly  limited.  Ex. :  Je  CHANTAIS  quand 
il  entra,  '  I  was  singing  when  he  entered.7 

2.  The  past  definite,  expressing  that  the  action  has  taken 
place   at  a  determined  time.      Ex.:    II  visita  Paris,  puis 
Rouen,  '  He  visited  Paris,  then  Bouen.' 

3.  The  past  indefinite,  expressing  that  an  action  has  taken 
place  once,  at  some  time  which  is  known  but  not  strictly 
determined.     Ex. :  Les  insectes  ont  mange  tout  le  fruit  de  cet 
arbre,  '  The  insects  have  eaten  all  the  fruit  on  that  tree.' 

4.  The  pluperfect,  expressing  that  something  had  taken 
place  before  another  past  action.     Ex. :  II  etait  mort  depuis 
longtemps  quand  nous  arrivdmes,  '  He  had  been  dead  for  a 
long  time  when  we  arrived.' 

5.  The  past  anterior,  expressing,  like  the  pluperfect,  that 
something  has  taken  place  before  a  past  action,  but  deter- 
mining the  exact  and  precise  succession  of  events.    Ex. :  A 
2ieine  eut-il  expire,  que  ses  amis  accoururent,  '  He  had  hardly 
breathed  his  last  when  his  friends  came  hastily  forward.' 

The  future  has  two  tenses,  the  simple  future.  Ex.  : 
J'irai,  '  I  shall  go,'  and  the  future  anterior.  Ex. :  Quand 
faurai  lu  ce  volume,  je  vous  le  preterai,  '  When  I  have  read 
this  volume,  I  will  lend  it  to  you.' 

The  imperative  has  but  one  tense.  Ex. :  Sois  (or  soyez) 
attentif,  '  Be  attentive,'  and  the  conditional,  two,  a  present 


38  FRENCH    GBAMMAK. 

and  a  past.  Ex. :  Je  ckanterais,  '  I  would  sing/  J'aurais 
ckante,  '  I  would  have  sung/ 

The  subjunctive1  has  four  tenses.  1.  The  present.  Ex.: 
Que  f 'arrive,  '  I  may  or  shall  come.'  2.  The  imperfect. 
Ex.:  Qrteje  ckantasse,  'I  might  or  should  sing.7  3.  The 
perfect.  Ex. :  Que  j'aie  ckante,  *  I  may  or  should  have 
sung.'  4.  The  pluperfect.  Ex.:  Que  feusse  ckante,  'I 
might  or  should  have  sung,  etc.' 

The  infinitive  has  two  tenses,  the  present.  Ex.:  Chan- 
ter, '  To  sing/  and  the  perfect.  Ex. :  Avoir  ckante,  *  To 
have  sung.' 

The  participle  has  two  tenses,  the  present.  Ex. :  Chan- 
taut,  '  Singing/  and  the  jms£.  Ex. :  Ckante,  *  Sung '  ;  Ayant 
chant  e,  'Having  sung.' 

REMARK.  —  With  the  use  of  the  verb  devoir  the  infini- 
tive and  participle  may  have  future  forms.  Ex. :  Devoir 
aller,  devant  aller,  '  To  be  about  to  go,  being  about  to  go.' 
The  indicative  tenses  of  devoir  are  often  used  in  the  same 
way  before  infinitives.  Ex. :  Je  dois  aller  a  la  poste,  '  I  am 
about  to  go  to  the  post-office.' 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS.  —  The  value  of  tenses  having 
the  same  names  in  French  and  English  is  not  necessarily 
identical;  consequently,  TRANSLATIONS  ARE  OFTEN  MISLEAD- 
ING, that  is  to  say,  the  general  value  of  a  given  tense  does 
not  apply  to  all  cases,  and  a  single  French  form  may  have 
several  renderings  in  English  from  among  which  the  trans- 
lator must  chose  the  correct  one.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  past  indicative  tenses,  and  of  the  subjunctives  which 
have  no  real  equivalent  in  English.  The  student  should 

1  The  subjunctive  is  here  and  elsewhere  translated  by  may,  shall,  might, 
should,  and  similar  forms.  These,  however,  do  not  render  its  whole  force, 
for  which  the  English  has  no  equivalent.  The  teacher  ought  to  make  the 
pupil  feel  the  value  of  this  mode  in  French  authors.  In  separate  sentences 
this  can  hardly  be  done. 


VERBS.  39 

endeavor  to  understand  from  the  outset  the  intrinsic  mean- 
ing of  modes  and  tenses,  and  not  be  satisfied  with  a  literal 
translation. 

The  auxiliaries  avoir  *  to  have/  and  etre  'to  be '  are  not 
used  as  in  English.  Ex.:  Je  suis  arrive,  'I  arrived'  (i.  e., 
have  arrived). 

The  conjunction  que  is  given  before  the  subjunctive  forms 
because  que  forms  very  often  a  part  of  the  compound  con- 
junction which  generally  precedes  the  subjunctive.  This 
que  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  verb,  and  in  many 
cases  it  is  absent.  Ex. :  PLAISE  au  del  qu'il  vienne,  '  May  it 
please  Heaven  that  he  come.'  S'ilm'EUT  cru,  tout  en  EUT 
ete  mieux,  '  If  he  had  believed  me,  everything  would  have 
gone  better.' 

AUXILIARIES. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present: 
Etre  '  to  be,'  Avoir  '  to  have.' 

Past. 

Avoir  ete  '  to  have  been,'  Avoir  eu  '  to  have  had.' 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. 
Etant '  being, '  Ay  ant '  having. ' 

Past. 
Ete,  ayant  ete  '  been,  having  been. '       Eu,  ayant  eu '  had,  having  had. ' 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

Je  suis  *  I  am,  etc.,'  J'ai  '  I  have,  etc.,' 

Tu  es,  Tu  as, 

II,  die,  on  est,  II,  elle,  on  .ft, 

Nous  sommes,  Nous  avons, 

Vous  etes,  Vous  avez, 

Us,  dies  sont.  Us,  elles  out. 


40  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


/  Imperfect. 

J'etais,  '  I  was,  etc.,'  J'avais  '  I  had,  etc.,' 

Tu  etais,  Tu  avais, 

II,  elle,  on  etait,  II,  die,  on  avait, 

Nous  etions,  Nous  avions, 

Vous  etiez,  Vous  aviez, 

Us,  elles  etaient.  Us,  elles  avaient. 

x" 
Past  Definite. 

Jefus  '  I  was,  etc.,'  J'eus  '  I  had,  etc.,' 

Tufus,  Tu  eus, 

U,  elle,  onfut,  II,  elle,  on  eut, 

Nous  fumes,  ous  eumes, 

Vousfutes,  Vous  eutes, 

Us,  elles  furent.  Ils,  elles  eurent. 

Past  Indefinite. 

J'ai  ete  '  I  have  been,  etc.,'  J'ai  eu  c  I  have  had,  etc.,' 

Tu  as  ete,  Tu  as  eu, 

II,  elle,  on  a  eU,  II,  elle,  on  a  eu, 

Nous  avons  ete,  Nous  avons  eu, 

Vous  avez  eU,  Vous  avez  eu. 

Ils,  elles  ont  ete.  Ils,  elles  ont  eu. 

Pluperfect. 

J'avais  ete  '  I  had  been,  etc.,'          J"' avais  eu  '  I  had  had,  etc.,' 

Tu  avais  ete,  Tu  avais  eu, 

II,  elle,  on  avait  ete,  II,  elle,  on  avait  eu, 

Nous  avions  ete,  Nous  avions  eu, 

Vous  aviez  ete,  Vous  aviez  eu, 

Ils,  elles  avaient  ete.  Ils,  elles  avaient  eu. 

Past  Anterior. 

J'eus  ete  '  I  had  been,  etc.,'  J'eus  eu  '  I  had  had,  etc.,' 

Tu  eus  ete,  Tu  eus  eu, 

II,  elle,  on  eut  ete,  II,  elle,  on  eut  eu, 

Nous  eumes  ete,  Nous  eumes  eu, 

Vous  t  fries  eU,  Vous  eutes  eu, 

Us,  elles  eurent  ete.  Ils,  elles  eurent  eu. 


VERBS.  41 


Future. 

Je  serai '  I  shall  or  will  be,  etc.,'  <Paurai '  I  shall  or  will  have,  etc. ,' 

Tu  seras,  Tu  auras, 

II,  elle,  on  sera,  II,  elle,  on  aura, 

Nous  serous,  Nous  aurons, 

Vous  serez,  Vous  aurez, 

Us,  elles  seront.  Us,  elles  auront. 

Future  Anterior. 

J'aurai  ete  'I  shall  or  will  have      J \iurai  eu  'I  shall  or  will  have 

been,  etc.,'  had,  etc.,' 

Tu  auras  ete,  Tu  auras  eu, 

II,  elle,  on  aura  ete,  II,  elle,  on  aura  eu, 

Nous  aurons  ete,  Nous  aurons  eu, 

Vous  aurez  ete,  Vous  aurez  eu, 

Us,  elles  auront  eU.  Us,  elles  auront  eu. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

Je  serais  'I  should  or  would  be,       J"*  aurais"  I  should  or  would  have, 

etc.,'  etc.,' 

Tu  serais,  Tu  aurais, 

II,  elle,  on  serait,  II,  elle,  on  aurait, 

Nous  serions,  Nous  aurions, 

Vous  seriez,  Vous  auriez, 

Us,  elles  seraient.  Us,  elles  auraient. 

Past  Conditional. 

J'' aurais  ete  'I  should  or  would      J"' aurais  eu  'I  should  or  would 

have  been,  etc.,'  have  had,  etc.,' 

Tu  aurais  ete,  Tu  aurais  eu, 

II,  elle,  on  aurait  ete,  II,  elle,  on  aurait  eu, 

Nous  aurions  ete,  Nous  aurions  eu, 

Vous  auriez  ete,  Vous  auriez  eu, 

Us,  elles  auraient  ete.  Us,  elles  auraient  eu, 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sois  'be  (thou),'  Aie  'have  (thou),' 

Soyons  '  let  us  be,'  Ayons  '  let  us  have,' 

Soyez  '  be  (ye).'  Ayez  ' have  (ye).' 


42  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.1 

Present. 

Queje  sois  'that  I  be,  may  or  shall  Que  fate  'that  I  have,  may  or 

be,  etc. , '  shall  have,  etc. , ' 

Que  tu  sols,  Que  tu  aies, 

Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on2  soit,  Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on  ait, 

Que  nous  soyons,  Que  nous  ayons, 

Que  vous  soyez,  Que  vous  ayez, 

Qu'ils,  qu'elles  soient.  Qu'ils,  qu'elles  aient. 

Imperfect. 

Que  je  fusse  'that  I  were,  might,  Que  feusse,  '  that  I  had,  might 

could  or  should  be,  etc.,'  would  or  should  have,  etc.,' 

Que  tu  fusses,  Que  tu  eusses, 

Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'onfut,  Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on  eut, 

Que  nous  fussions,  Que  nous  eussions, 

Que  vous  fussiez,  Que  vous  eussiez, 

QuHls,  qu'elles  fussent.  Qu'ils,  qu'elles  eussent 

Perfect. 

Quefaieete'  'that  I  may  have  been,  Que  faie  eu  'that  I  may  have 

etc.,'  had,  etc.,' 

Que  tu  aies  ete,  Que  tu  ales  eu, 

Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on  ait  ete,  Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on  ait  eu, 

Que  nous  ayons  ete,  Que  nous  ayons  eu, 

Que  vous  ayez  etc,  Que  vous  ayez  eu, 

Qu'ils,  qu'elles  aient  ete.  Qu'ils,  qu'elles  aient  eu. 

Pluperfect. 

Que  feusse  ele  'that  I  might  or       Que  feusse  eu  'that  I  might  or 

should  have  been,  etc.,'  should  have  had,  etc.,' 

Que  tu  eusses  ete,  Que  tu  eusses  eu, 

Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on  eut  ete,  Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on  eut  eu, 

Que  nous  eussions  ete,  Que  nous  eussions  eu, 

Que  vous  eussiez  ete,  Que  vous  eussiez  eu, 

Qu'ils,  qu'elles  eussent  £te.  Qu'ils,  qu'elles  eussent  eu. 

REGULAR  VERBS. 

REMARK.  —  The  arrangement  of  verbs  in  four  conjuga- 
tions and  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  tenses,  are  only  a 

1  See  note,  page  38.    2  Que  I'on  may  always  be  used  instead  of  qu'on. 


VERBS.  43 

practical  means  of  remembering  their  inflection.  They  do 
not  correspond  with  the  scientific  classification  of  the  con- 
jugations, nor  with  the  real  manner  in  which  the  French 
verbs  were  either  transformed  from  the  Latin,  or  recon- 
structed on  an  independent  basis.  It  is  not  even  an  ideal 
division ;  but,  all  things  considered,  it  is  preferable  in  an 
elementary  book  not  to  depart  from,  usages  that  are  accepted 
by  nearly  all  grammarians,  since  no  principle  is  at  stake. 

Primitive  Tenses. 

There  are  five  tenses,  or  rather  forms,  to  which  it  is 
convenient  to  refer  all  others  ;  verbs  which  can  be  so 
referred  are  called  regular,  others  are  said  to  be  irregular. 
These  tenses  are  the  present  infinitive,  the  present  participle, 
the  present  indicative,  the  past  definite,  and  the  past  participle. 

1.  From  the  present  infinitive  are  formed: 

a)  The  future  simple,  by  changing  final  r,  oir,  or  re  to 
rai,  ras,  etc.,  the  endings  being  those  of  the  present  indica- 
tive of  avoir. 

b)  The  present  conditional,  by  changing  the  same  letters 
to  rais,  etc.,  the  endings  being  those  of  the  imperfect  in- 
dicative. 

2.  From  the  present  participle  are  formed: 

a)  The  plural  of  the  present  indicative  by  changing  ant 
to  ons,  ez,  ent.     Verbs  having  the  infinitive  in  oir  have  the 
third    person    plural  in  oivent.      Ex. :    recevoir,   recoivent ; 
devoir,  doivent. 

b)  The  imperfect  indicative  by  changing  ant  to  ais,  ais, 
ait,  ions,  iez,  aient. 

c)  The  present  subjunctive  by  changing  ant  to  e,  es,  e,  ions, 
iez,  ent.     Verbs  in  oir  change  oir  or  evoir  to  oive.     Ex.: 
recevoir,  que  je  regoive;  devoir,  queje  doive. 

NOTE. — Verbs  in  oir  have  further  modifications  in  the 
radical;  see  conjugation,  page  44. 


44 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


3.  From  the  present  indicative  is  formed  the  imperative 
by  omitting  the  pronoun  and  the  final  s  of  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  present  indicative. 

4.  From  the  past  definite  is  formed  the  imperfect  sub- 
junctive by  changing  the  final  s  of  the  second  person  singular 
into  sse,  sses,  *t,  ssions,  ssiez,  ssent.     Note  that  the  circum- 
flex (")  is  placed  on  the  vowel  immediately  preceding  t. 
It  has  taken  the  place  of  s,  which  was  formerly  a  part  of 
the  ending. 

5.  From  the  past  participle  are  formed  all  the  compound 
tenses  by  joining  it  to  the  simple  tenses  of  the  auxiliary 
verbs  avoir  or  etre. 

MODEL  VERBS. 

They  are  distinguished  by  the  infinitive  endings,  those 
of  the  first  class  ending  in  er,  the  second  in  ir,  the  third  in 
oir,  and  the  fourth  in  re. 

Active  Voice. 

1st  Conjugation;   2d  Conjugation;   3d  Conjugation;   4tb  Conjugation. 
INFINITIVE. 

Present. 
Finir'to  end,  to     Recevoir  '  to  re-    Eendre    '  to    re- 


Aimer  'to  love, 
to  like.' 


finish. ' 


ceive. ' 


turn. ' 


Past. 

Avoir  aim£  '  to  Avoir  fini  '  to  Avoir  requ  ' to  Avoir  rendu  '  to 
have  loved.'  have  finished.'  have  received.'  have  returned.' 

PARTICIPLE. 

Present. 

A  imant '  loving. '    Finissant '  end-    Recevant '  receiv-   Eendant '  return- 
ing, finishing.'       ing.'  ing.' 

Past. 

Aime,ayantaim6  Fini,  ayant  fini  ReQu,ayantreQU  Rendu,  ayant  ren- 
' loved,  having  'ended,  etc.,  ' received, hav-  du  'returned, 
love  d. '  having  ended.'  ing  received. '  having  returned.' 


VERBS. 


45 


INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

J'aime  'I  love, 

Finis  *  I  finish, 

Reqois  '  I  receive, 

Rends  *  I  return, 

am  loving,  do 

am  finishing, 

am  receiving, 

etc.,' 

love,' 

do  finish,' 

etc.,' 

Tu  aimes, 

Finis, 

Reqois, 

Rends, 

II,  die,  on  aime, 

Finit, 

Reqoit, 

Rend, 

Nous  aimons, 

Finissons, 

Eecevons, 

Rendons, 

Vous  aimez, 

Finissez, 

Recevez, 

Rendez, 

Us,  elles  aiment. 

Finissent. 

Reqowent. 

Rendent. 

Imperfect. 

J^aimais'Iloved, 

Finissais  '  I  fin- 

Recevais '  I  re- 

Rendais   '  I    re- 

was loving,  did 

ished,  etc.,' 

ceived,  etc.,' 

turned,  etc.,' 

love,' 

Tu  aimais, 

Finissais, 

Recevais, 

Rendais, 

II,  elle,  on  aimait, 

Finissait, 

Recevait, 

Rendait, 

Nous  aimions, 

Finissions, 

Recevions, 

Rendions, 

Vous  aimiez, 

Finissiez, 

Receviez, 

Rendiez, 

Us,  elles  aimaient. 

Finissaient. 

Recevaient. 

Rendaient. 

Past  Definite. 

n  loved,'  Finis'  I  finished,'  Remus'  I  received,'  Rend  is    'I    re- 
turned,' 

Requs,  Rendis, 

Regut,  Rendit, 

Resumes,  Rendlmes, 

Refutes,  Rendites, 

Re^urent.  Rendirent. 


Tu  aimas,  Finis, 

II,  elle,  on  aima,    Finit, 
Nous  aimdmes,      Finlmes, 
Vous  aimdtes,       Finites, 
Us,  elles  aimerent.  Finirent. 


J'ai  aime  '  I  have  Fini, 

loved,' 

Tu  as  aimg,  Fini, 

II,  elle,  on  a  aime",  Fini, 

Nous  avons  aime,  Fini, 

Vous  avez  aime,  Fini, 

Us,  elles  ont  aime".  Fini. 


Past  Indefinite. 
Regu, 


Requ, 


Requ. 


Rendu,1 

Rendu, 
Rendu, 
Rendu, 
Rendu, 
Rendu. 


1  After  this  the  first  person  singular  only  of  compound  tenses  will  be  indicated. 


46 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


J' avals  dime  '  I    Fini. 
had  loved. ' 

J"'  eus  aime" '  I  had    Fini. 
loved. ' 


Pluperfect. 
Regu. 

Past  Anterior. 
ReQu. 

Future. 


Rendu. 


Rendu. 


<7'aw7imu'Ishall  Finirai  'I  shall  Recevrai  'I  shall  Rendrai  'I  shall 

(or  will)  love,'      (or will)  finish,'  (or will) receive,'     (or will)  return,' 

Tu  aimeras,  Finiras,  Recevras,               Rendras, 

Il,elle,onaimera,  Finira,  Recevra,                Rendra, 

Nous  aimerons,  Finirons,  Recevrons,             Rendrons, 

Vous  aimerez,  Finirez,  Recevrez,                Rendrez, 

Us  Belles  aimer  ont,  Finiront.  Recevront.             Rendront. 


J'aurai    aimi  'I  Fini. 
shall  have  loved.' 


Future  Anterior. 
Requ. 


Rendu. 


Present. 


J'aimerais  'I  Finirais*  I  should 
should  (would)  (would)  finish,' 
love,' 

Tu  aimerais,          Finirais, 
II, elle,on  aimer  ait,  Finirait, 
Nous  aimerions,     Finirions, 
Vous  aimeriez,       Finiriez, 
Ils,elles  aimeraient.  Finiraient. 


Recevrais,  f  I  jRencfams' I  should 
should  (would)  (would)  return. ' 
receive,' 

Recevrais,  Rendrais, 

Recevrait,  Rendrait, 

Recevrions,  Rendrions, 

Recevriez,  Rendriez, 

Recevraient.  Rendraient. 


J'aurais  aimg  '  I    Fini. 
should  have 
loved. ' 


Past. 
Requ. 

IMPERATIVE. 


Rendu. 


1st  sing. — ^.ime'love!'  Finis 'finish!'  Reqois*  receive!'  Trends 'return!' 
1st  plu. — Aimons  'let  Finissons!       Recevons!  Rendons! 

us  love ! ' 
2d  plu.  — Aimez^lover  Finissez  I         Recevez  I  Rendez ! 


VERBS. 


47 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Que  faime  '  I  love  ' 

Finisse  'I  fin- 

Revive 'I  re- 

Rende '  I  returned  ' 

(may,  shall  love), 

ished'  (etc.), 

ceived  '(etc.), 

(etc.), 

Que  tu  aimes, 

Finisse, 

Reqoives, 

Rendes, 

QuCil,  qu'elle,  qu'on 

Finisse, 

Regoive, 

Rende, 

aime, 

Que  nous  aimions, 

Finissions, 

Eecevions, 

Rendions, 

Que  vous  aimiez, 

Finissiez, 

Receviez, 

Rendicz, 

Quails,    qu'elles 

Finissent. 

ReQoivent. 

Rendent, 

aiment. 

Imperfect. 

Que    faimasse    '  I 

Finisse  '  I  fin- 

Regusse *  I  re- 

Rendisse '  I   re- 

loved '     (might, 

ished'  (etc.), 

ceived'  (etc.), 

turned'  (etc.), 

should  love), 

Que  tu  aimasses, 

Finisse, 

Requsses, 

Rendisses, 

Qu'il,  qu'elle,  qu'on 

Finit, 

Requt, 

RendU, 

aimdt, 

Que  nous  aimassions, 

Finissions, 

Requssions, 

Rendissions, 

Que  vous  aimassiez, 

Finissiez, 

Requssiez, 

Rendissiez, 

Quails,    qu'elles 

Finissent. 

Regussent. 

Rendissent. 

aimassent. 

Perfect. 

Quef  aie  aime  '  I  may 

Fini. 

ReQu. 

Rendu. 

have  loved'  (etc.). 

Que  feusse  aimg  '  I 
•  might  have  loved ' 
(etc.). 


Pluperfect. 
Fini.  Requ. 

Passive   Voice. 


Rendu. 


The  passive  tenses  are  formed  as  in  English  by  the  com- 
pounding of  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  with  the  tenses 
of  the  auxiliary  etre  *  to  be.? 

INFINITIVE. 

Present.  —  Eire  aime,  or  aimee  *  '  to  be  loved  or  liked. ' 
Past.  — Avoir  ete  aim^,  or  aimee  '  to  have  been  loved.' 

1  The  plural  forms  are  aimes  and  aimee s ;  in  the  passive  conj.,  the  participle 
agrees  with  its  subject. 


48  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Present.  —  Etant  aime,  or  aimee  '  being  loved. ' 

Past.  — Ay  ant  ete  aime,  or  aimee  '  having  been  loved,  or  loved. ? 

INDICATIVE. 

Present.  —  Je  suis  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  am  loved. ' 
Imperfect.  — J'etais  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  was  loved.' 
Past  Definite.  — Jefus  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  was  loved.' 
Past  Indefinite.  — J^ai  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  have  been  loved.' 
Pluperfect.  —  J"' avals  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  'I  had  been  loved.' 
Past  Anterior.  — J'eus  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  had  been  loved.' 
Future.  —  Je  serai  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  shall  be  loved. ' 
Future  Anterior.  — J'aurai  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  'I  shall  have  been 
loved. ' 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present.  —  Je  serais  aime,  or  aimee,  '  I  should  be  loved. ' 

Past.  — J^aurais  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  '  I  should  have  been  loved.' 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sois  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  be  loved. ' 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  —  Que  je  sois  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  '  I  may  be  loved. ' 
Imperfect.  —  Quejefusse  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  'I  might  be  loved.' 
Perfect.  — Quefaie  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  'I  may  have  been  loved.' 
Pluperfect.  —  Que  feusse  ete  aime,  or  aimee,  etc.  'I  might  have  been 
loved. ' 

Remarks  on  Verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation. 

The  first  conjugation  contains  about  four-fifths  of  all  the 
French  verbs,  of  which  only  two  simple  verbs  alter  and 
envoyer,  with  their  compounds,  differ  from  the  model. 

The  following  remarks  ought  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
regard  to  the  spelling  of  a  certain  number  of  these  verbs. 

1.  Verbs  ending  in  cer  take  a  cedilla  (Q)  and  verbs  in 
ger  insert  an  e  mute  before  a,  o,  u,  so  as  to  preserve  the 
soft  pronunciation  of  these  letters.  Ex. :  commencer  has  in 
the  first  person  plu.  pres.  ind.,  nous  commengons  'we  begin '; 
manger  has  nous  mangeons  '  we  eat.? 


VERBS.  49 

2.  Verbs  which  in  the  infinitive  have  an  e  (acute)  in  the 
last  syllable   but   one  (penult),  change   it  to  an  e   (grave) 
whenever  the  following  syllable  is  mute  and  ends  the  verb. 
Hence  there  is  an  acute  accent  in  the  future  and  condi- 
tional.    Ex.  esperer  'to  hope/  fespere.  Us  esperent ;  but  in 
the  future  write  f  esperer ai. 

3.  Verbs  having  an  e  (mute)  in  the  penult  take  an  e 
(grave)  whenever  the  following  syllable  is  mute ;  a  number 
of  verbs  in  eler,  eter,  however,  indicate  the  change  of  pro- 
nunciation by  doubling  the  consonant  instead  of  taking  the 
accent;  the  effect  on  the  pronunciation  is  the  same.     Ex.: 
Achever  'to  finish,  to  achieve'  ;  (nous  achevons)  j'acheverai. 
Mener  '  to  lead  '  ;    (Je  menais)  que  je  mene.     Appeler  '  to 
call7 ;   (j ' appelle)  fappellerai.     Some  of  the  more  common 
verbs  doubling  their  consonant  are : 

Appeler  '  to  call,'  Cacheter  '  to  seal,' 

Atteler  '  to  hitch  to,  to  yoke,'  Jeter  '  to  throw,' 

Epeler  '  to  spell,'  Feuilleter f  to  turn  leaves,' 

Chanceler  '  to  totter,'  Epousseter  '  to  dust.' 

4.  Verbs  ending  in  yer  take  usually  i  instead  of  y  before 
an  e  mute.     Ex. :  Noyer,  je  noie  '  I  drown.'    After  a  and  e,  the 
change  is  optional.    Ex. :  Payer  '  to  pay/  je  paye  or  je  paie. 

Remarks  on  Verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation. 

This  conjugation  might  be  subdivided  into  classes, 
and  would  then  include  many  of  the  verbs  numbered  as 
irregular. 

1.  Verbs  which  end  in  ir  preceded  by  a  vowel.     Ex.: 
Obeir  '  to  obey.' 

2.  Many  verbs  of  which  the  radical  ends  in  two  conso- 
nants.    Ex. :    Bondir  '  to  bound,  to  leap/   grandir  '  to  in- 
crease, to  grow/  noircir  '  to  blacken/  etc. 

3.  Some  verbs  like  applaud  ir  '  to  applaud/   choisir  '  to 
choose/  agir  '  to  act/  murir  *  to  ripen/  gemir  '  to  groan/  etc. 


50  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Remarks  on  Verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation. 

This  class  is  very  small.  The  regular  verbs  are  recevoir 
'  to  receive/  concevoir  *  to  conceive/  percevoir  '  to  gather,  to 
collect/  apercevoir  '  to  perceive/  decevoir  '  to  deceive '  and 
devoir  'to  owe/  etc. 

Du  past.  part,  of  devoir  'to  owe '  and  redu,  past  part,  of 
redevoir  'to  owe  still/  take  a  circumflex  accent  on  the  masc. 
sing.,  but  the  feminine  is  due,  and  the  masc.  plu.  dus.  C 
before  a,  o,  u  takes  a  cedilla  in  order  to  preserve  the  soft 
sound  of  the  letter.  Ex. :  Decevoir,  decu. 

Remarks  on  Verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation. 

The  regular  endings  of  the  present  ind.  sing,  are  s,  s,  t, 
but  after  d,  t,  c  in  the  radical,  the  t  of  the  third  person  is 
omitted.  Ex. :  Rendre,  il  rend,  not  rendt ;  vaincre,  U  vainc, 
etc. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

We  shall  call  irregular  verbs  those  which  do  not  agree 
with  the  models  given,  due  attention  being  paid  to  the  re- 
marks. An  alphabetical  table  will  be  found  at  the  end  of 
the  volume  referring  irregular  verbs  to  one  of  the  verbs 
treated  with  the  necessary  details.  The  infinitive,  present, 
and  past  part,  are  indicated  first.  In  every  case  the  past 
indef.  has  been  given  to  show  which  auxiliary  is  to  be  used. 
Generally, the  first  person  only  is  printed  in  every  case;  it 
must  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  rules,  page  51,  etc.,  are 
to  be  literally  followed;  any  deviation  from  them  is  noticed. 
For  instance,  the  pres.  ind.  forms  the  imperative ;  whence 
if  the  former  is  irregular,  the  latter  will  show  the  same 
irregularity. 

The  radical  of  the  conditional  generally  follows  the  form 
of  the  future  ;  hence  few  conditionals  need  be  noticed. 

1.  ABSOUDRE. — Absolvant,  absous,  absoute  (fern.).  Pres.  ind., 
j'absous,  tu  absous,  il  absout,  nous  absolvons,  vous  absolvez,  ils  absol- 


VERBS.  51 

vent.    Imp.,  j'absolvais.    No  past  def.    Past  indef.,  j'ai  absous.    Fut., 
j'absoudrai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  j' absolve.     No  imp.  subj. 

2.  ACCROIRE.  — Used  only  in  the  locutions  faire  accroire,  en  faire 
accroire  'to  make  believe,'  and  s'en  faire  accroire  'to  dupe  one's  self.' 
(Faire  only  is  conjugated.    Ex. :  Je  irienfais  accroire  '  I  dupe  myself.) 

3.  AccRofxRE.  —  See  croitre.     Accru  past  part,  does  not  take  the 
circumflex. 

4.  ACQUERIR. — Acque'rant,    acquis.      Pres.    ind.,    j'acquiers,    tu 
acquiers,  il  acquiert,  nous  acquerons,  vous  acqu6rez,  ils  acquierent. 
Imp.,  j'acquerais.    Past  def.,  j' acquis.    Past  indef.,  j'ai  acquis.    Fut., 
j'acquerrai.    Pres.  subj.,  que  j'acquiere.     Imp.  Subj.,  que  j'acquisse. 

5.  ALLER.  —  Allant,  alle.    Pres.  ind. ,  je  vais  (rarely  je  vas),  tu  vas, 
il  va,  nous  allons,  vous  allez,  ils  vont.    Past  def.,  j'allai.     Past  indef., 
je  suis  alle\     Fut.,  j'irai.     Imperative,  va,  allons,  allez.     Pres.  subj., 
que  j'aille,  que  tu  ailles,  qu'il  aille,  que  nous  allions,  que  vous  alliez, 
qu'ils  aillent.     Imp.  subj.,  que  j'allasse. 

6.  S'EN  ALLER. — S'en  allant,  alle.      Pres.  ind.,  je  m'en  vais,  tu 
t'en  vas,  il  s'en  va,  nous  nous  en  allons,  vous  vous  en  allez,  ils  s'en 
vont.     Past  indef.,  je  m'en  suis  alle\    Fut.,  je  m'en  irai.    Imperative, 
va-t'en,  allons-nous-en,  allez-vous-en.      (En  must  always  be  placed 
immediately  after  the  objective  pronoun.) 

7.  APPAROIR.  —  Only  used  in  the  infinitive    and  third  pers.  sing. 
pres.  ind.,  il  appert '  it  is  evident,  it  is  clear.' 

8.  S'ASSEOIR. — S'asseyant    or  s'assoyant,   assis.      Pres.    ind.,   je 
m'assieds,  tu  t'assieds,  il  s'assied,  nous  nous  asseyons,  vous  vous  as- 
seyez,  ils  s'asseyent.     Or,  je  m'asseois,  tu  t'asseois,  il  s'asseoit,  nous 
nous   assoyons,  vous  vous   assoyez,   ils  s'assoient.      Imp.,  je   m'as- 
seyais  or  je  m'assoyais.     Past  def.,  je  m' assis.     Past  indef.,  je  me 
suis  assis.     Fut.,   je   m'assie'rai  or  je  m'asseyerai  or  je   m'assoirai. 
Imperative,    assieds-toi,    asseyons-nous,    asseyez-vous    or  asseois-toi, 
assoyons-nous,    assoyez-vous.     Pres.  subj.,  que   je  m'asseye,  que  tu 
t'asseyes,  qu'il  asseye,  que  nous  nous  asseyions,  que  vous  vous  as- 
seyiez,  qu'ils  s'asseyent,  or  que  je  m'asseoie,  que  tu  t'asseoies,  qu'il 
s'asseoie,  que  nous  nous  assoyions,  que  vous  vous  assoyiez,  qu'ils  as- 
seoient. 

9.  AVENIR. — Avenant,  avenu.     Impersonal.    Pres.  ind.,  il  avient. 
Imp. ,  il  avenait.     Past  def. ,  il  avint.     Past  ind. ,  il  est  avenu.     Fut. , 
il  aviendra.     Pres.  subj.  qu'il  avienne.     Imp.  subj.,  qu'il  avint. 

10.  AVOIR.  -HT-  See  the  conjugation,  page  39.     Y  avoir  (impersonal), 
il  y  a  '  there  is, '  il  y  avait  ( there  was, '  etc.     See  also  the  foot  note, 
page  101. 


52  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

11.  BENIR.  — Be"nissant,  be"ni,  otherwise  regular,  has  a  second  past 
participle  benit  (masc.),  benite  (fern.),  with  the  meaning  consecrated. 
Ex. :  L'eau  benite  '  holy  water.' 

12.  BOIRE.  — Buvant,  bu.     Pres.  me?.,  je  bois,  tu  bois,  il  boit,  nous 
buvons,  vous  buvez,  ils  boivent.     Imp.,  je  buvais.     Past,  def.,  je  bus 
Past  indef. ,  j'ai  bu.    Pres.  subj. ,  que  je  boive.    Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  busse. 

13.  BOUILLIR.  —  Bouillant,  bouilli.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  bous,  tu  bous, 
il  bout,  nous  bouillons,   vous  bouillez,  ils  bouillent.     Past  def.,  je 
bouillis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  bouilli.     Pres.  subj,  que  je  bouille. 

14.  BRAIRE.  — Conjugated  like  traire  ;  rare  except  in  the  infinitive 
and  in  the  third  persons  of  the  pres.  ind. ,  fut. ,  and  cond. 

15.  BRUIRE.  —  See  Table  of  Irregular  verbs  ;  page 

16.  CHOIR.  —  No  pres.  part.     Chu.     Only  in  infinitive   and  pres. 
ind. ,  je  chois,  tu  chois,  il  choit.     Compound  tenses  conjugated  with 
etre.     Fut.,  je  cherrai,  etc, 

17  CLORE. — No  pres.  part.  Clos.  The  following  forms  only  are 
used  :  Pres.  ind.  sing.,  je  clos,  tu  clos,  il  clot,  and  fut.  sing,  and  plu., 
je  clorai.  Cond.  sing,  and  plu.,  je  clorais.  Imperative,  clos.  Past 
indef.,  j'ai  clos  (and  in  all  persons  of  the  compound  tenses). 

18.  CONCLURE.  — Concluant,  conclu.    Pres.  ind.,  je  conclus  tu  con- 
clus,  il  conclut,  nous  concluons,  vous  concluez,  ils  concluent.     Past 
def.,  je  conclus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  conclus.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  con- 
clue.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  conclusse. 

19.  COXFIRE.  —  Confisant,  confit.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  confis,  tu  conns, 
il  confit,  nous  confisons,  vous  confisez,  ils  confisent.     Past  def.,   je 
confis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  confit.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je   confise.     Imp. 
subj.,  que  je  confisse. 

20.  CONXAITRE. — Connaissant,  connu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  connais,  tu 
connait,  il  connait,  nous  connaissons,  vous  connaissez,  ils  connaissent. 
Past  def.,  je  connus.     Past  ind.,  j'ai  connu.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  con- 
naisse.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  connusse. 

21.  CONTREDIRE.  — See  dire  ;  but  the  second  per s.  plural  pres.  ind., 
vous  contredisez  (not  vous  contredites). 

22.  COUDRE.  —  Cousant,  cousu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  couds,  tu  couds,  il 
coud,  nous  cousons,  vous  cousez,  ils  consent.     Past  def.,  je  cousis. 
Past  indef.,  j'ai  cousu.    Pres.  subj.,  que  je  couse.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je 
cousisse. 

23.  COURIR. — Courant,  couru.     Pres.  ind.,  je  cours,  tu  cours,  il 
court,  nous  courons,  vous  courez,  ils  courent.     Past,  def.,  je  courus. 
Past  indef.,  j'ai  couru.     Fut.,  je  courrai,     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  coure. 
Imp.  subj, ,  que  je  courusse. 


VERBS.  53 

24.  COURRE  (Hunting  term). — Only  used  in  the  infinitive.     Ex.: 
Courre  le  cerf  '  hunt  the  stag. ' 

25.  CRAINDRE.  — Craignant,  craint.    Pres.  ind.,  je  crains,  tu  crains, 
il  craint,  nous  craignons,  vous  craignez,  ils  craignent.     Past  def. ,  je 
craignis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  craint.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  craigne.     Imp. 
subj. ,  que  je  craignisse. 

26.  CROIRE.  —  Croyant,  cru.     Pres.  ind.,  je  crois,  tu  crois,  il  croit, 
nous  croyons,  vous  croyez,  ils  croient.    Past  def.,  je  crus.    Past  indef., 
j'ai  cru.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  croie,  plural,  que  nous  croyions.     Imp. 
subj.,  que  je  crusse. 

27.  CROITRE. — Croissant,  cru.     Pres.  ind.,  je   crois,  tu   crois,  il 
croit,  nous  croissons,  vous  croissez,  ils  croissent.     Past  def.,  je  crus, 
tu  crus,  il  crut,  nous  crumes,  vous  crutes,  ils  crurent.     Past  indef., 
j'ai  cru.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  croisse.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  crusse. 

28.  CUEILLIR. — Cueillant,    cueilli.      Pres.    ind.,    je    cueille,    etc. 
Past  def.,  je  cueillis.      Past  ind.,  j'ai  cueilli.      Fut.,  je   cueillerai. 
Pres.  subj.,  que  je  cueille.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  cueillisse. 

29.  DECHOIR.  — (De'che'ant  or  de"choyant)  de'chu.     The  pres.  part., 
imp.  ind.,  and  imperative  are  rarely  used;  the  compound  tenses  are 
more   frequently   employed.     Pres.   ind.,  je   de'chois,   tu   de'chois,   il 
de"choit,  nous  de"choyons,  vous  dechoyez,  ils  de'choient.     Past  def.,  je 
de"chus.     Past  indef.,  je  suis  de'chu  or  j'ai  de'chu.     Fut.,  je  de'cherrai. 
Pres.  subj.,  que  je  de'choie.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  d^chusse. 

30.  DEFAILLIR. —  De'faillant,  de'failli.     Pres.    ind.,  je   de'faux,   tu 
d^faux,  il  d^faut,  nous  de'faillons,  vous  de"faillez,  ils  de'faillent.     Past 
def.,   je  de'faillis.      Past  indef.,   j'ai    de'failli.      Fut.,    je    de"faudrai. 
No  imperative.     Pres.    subj.,    que  je   de'faille.      Imp.    subj.,    que   je 
defaillisse. 

31.  DETRUIRE. — De'truisant,  d^truit.      Pres.   ind.,  je   d^truis,  tu 
d^truis,  il   de"truit,   nous   ddtruisons,  vous   d^truisez,   ils   de'truisent. 
Imp.,  je  ddtruisais.     Past  def.,  je  de'truisis.    Fut.,  je  de"truirai.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  d^truit.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  d^truise.     Imp.  subj,,  que  je 
de"truisisse.     Imperative,  de'truis,  d^truisons,  d^truisez. 

32.  DIRE. — Disant,  dit.     Pres.  ind.,  je   dis,  tu   dis,  il   dit,   nous 
disons,  vous  dites,  ils  disent.     Imp.,  je  disais.     Past  def.,  je  dis,  tu 
dis,  il  dit,  nous  dimes,  vous  dites,  ils  dirent.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  dit. 
Fut.,  je  dirai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  dise,  que  tu  dises,  qu'il  dise,  que 
nous  disions,  que  vous  disiez,  qu'ils  disent.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  disse, 
que  tu  disses,  qu'il   dit,  que   nous  dissioiis,  que  vous  dissiez,  qu'ils 
dissent, 


54  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

33.  DORMIR. — Dormant,  dormi.     Pres.  ind.,  je  dors,  tu  dors,  il 
dort,  nous  dormons,  vous  dormez,  ils  dorment.     Past  def.,  je  dormis. 
Past  indef.,  j'ai  dormi.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  dorme.     Imp.  subj.,  que 
je  dormisse. 

34.  ECHOIR.  —  Eche"ant,  e'chu.     Only  the  following  forms   are  in 
use:   Pres.  ind.,  il  e"choit  or  echet,  ils  e"choient  or  e'che'ent.     Imp.,  il 
echoyait.     Past  def.,  il  e"chut,  ils  echurent.     Past  indef.,  il  est  echu, 
ils  sont  e"chus  (and  the  other  compound  tenses,  third  persons).     Fut., 
il  e'cherra  or  gchoira.     Cond.,  il  e'cherrait  or  e'choirait.     Pres.  subj., 
qu'il  gchoie.     Imp.  subj.,  qu'il  e"chut. 

35.  ECLORE. — No  pres.  part.     6clos.     Pres.  ind.,  j'eclos,  tu  4clos, 
il  e"clot,  nous   eclosons,  vous  eclosez,  ils  e'closent.     Imp.,  j'dclosais. 
No  past.  def.     Past  indef.,  je  suis   e"clos  (and  the  other  compound 
tenses).     Fut.,  j'e"c!6rai.     Cond.,  j'eclorais.     Pres.  subj.,  que  j'e"close. 
No  imp.  subj. 

36.  ECRIRE.  — Ecrivant,  e"crit.    Pres.  ind.,  j'e"cris,  tu  ^cris,  il  e"crit, 
nous  ^crivons,  vous  e'crivez,  ils  ^crivent.     Past  def.,  j' e'en  vis.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  ^crit.    Pres.  subj.,  que  j' derive.    Imp.  subj.,  que  j'e"crivisse. 

37.  S'ENSUIVRE. — S'ensuivant,  ensuivi.     Impersonal.     Pres.  ind., 
il  s'ensuit.    Imp.,  il  s'ensuivait.    Past  def.,  il  s'ensuivit.    Past  indef., 
il  s'est  ensuivi.     Fut.,  il  s'ensuivra.     No   imperative.     Pres.    subj., 
qu'il  s'ensuive.     Imp.  subj.,  qu'il  s'ensuivit. 

38.  ENVOYER. — Envoy  ant,  envoy  e\     Pres.    ind.,  j'envoie,  tu   en- 
voies,  il  envoie,  nous  envoy ons,  vous  envoy ez,  ils  envoient.    Past  def. , 
j'envoyai.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  envoye.     Fut.,  j'enverrai.     Pres.  subj., 
que  j'envoie.     Imp.  subj.,  que  j'envoyasse. 

39.  FAILLIR.  —  Faillant,  failli.    Pres.  ind. ,  je  faux,  tu  faux,  il  f aut, 
nous  faillons,  vous  faillez,  ils  faillent.     Past   def.,  je  faillis.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  failli.     Fut.,  je  faudrai.     No  imperative.     Pres.  subj.,  que 
je  faille.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  faillisse. 

40.  FAIRE.  — Faisant,  fait.     Pres.  ind.,  je  fais,  tu  fais,  il  fait,  nous 
faisons,  vous  faites,  ils  font.    Imp.,  je  faisais  (rarely  fesais).   Past  def., 
je  fis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  fait.     Fut.,  je  ferai.    Pres.  subj.,  que  je  fasse. 
Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  fisse. 

41.  FRIRE. — No  pres.  part.     Frit.     Only  the  following  forms  are 
in  use:    Pres.  ind.,  je  fris,  tu  fris,  il  frit.     Past  def.,  je  fris.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  frit,  etc.  (and  all  compound  tenses).     Fut.,  je  frirai,  etc. 
Cond.,  je  frirais,  etc.     Imperative,  fris. 

42.  FUIR. — Fuyant,  fui.     Pres.  ind.,  je  fuis,  tu  fuis,  il  fuit,  nous 
fuyons,  vous  fuyez,  ils  fuient.    Past  def.,  je  fuis.    Past  indef.,  j'ai  fui. 
Pres.  subj.,  que  je  fuie,  que  tu  fuies,  qu'il  fuie,  que  nous  fuyions,  que 


VERBS.  55 

vous  fuyiez,  qu'ils  fuient.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  fuisse,  que  tu  fuisses, 
qu'il  fuit,  que  nous  fuissions,  que  vous  fuissiez,  qu'ils  fuissent. 

43.  GESIR.  — Gisant.    No  past  part.     Only  the  following  forms  are 
in  use:  Pres.  ind.,  il  git,1  nous  gisons,  vous  gisez,  ils  gisent.     Imp.,  je 
gisais,  etc. 

44.  LIRE.  — Lisant,  lu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  Us,  tu  lis,  il  lit,  nous  lisons, 
vous  lisez,  ils  lisent.     Past  def.,  je  lus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  lu.     Pres. 
subj.,  que  je  Use.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  lusse. 

45.  LUIRE.  — Luisant,  lui.     Pres.  ind.,  je  Ms,  tu  luis,  il  luit,  nous 
luisons,  vous  luisez,  ils  luisent.     No  past  def.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  lui. 
Pres.  subj. ,  que  je  luise.     No  imp.  subj. 

46.  MAUDIRE. — Maudissant,   maudit.     Prcs.  ind.,  je   maudis,  tu 
maudis,  il  maudit,  nous  maudissons,  vous  maudissez,  ils  maudissent. 
Past  def.,  je  maudis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  maudit.      Pres.  subj.,  que  je 
maudisse,  que  tu  maudisses,  qu'il  maudisse,  que   nous  maudissions, 
que  vous  maudissiez,  qu'ils  maudissent.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  maudisse, 
que  tu  maudisses,  qu'il  maudit,  que  nous  maudissions,  que  vous  mau- 
dissiez, qu'ils  maudissent. 

47.  MENTIR. — Mentant,  menti.     Pres.  ind.,  je  mens,  tu  mens,  il 
merit,  nous  mentons,  vous  mentez,  ils  mentent.     Past  def. ,  je  mentis. 
Past  indef.,  j'ai  menti.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  mente.     Imp.  subj.,  que 
je  mentisse. 

48.  MESSEOIR.  —  Messe'ant.     No  past  part.     The  following  tenses 
only  are  in  use:  Pres.  ind.,  je  messieds,  tu  messieds,  il  messied,  nous 
messeyons,  vous  messeyez,  ils  messeyent.     Imp.,  je  messeyais,  etc. 
Fut.,  je  messierai,  etc.     Cond.,  je  messie'rais,  etc.    Pres.  subj.,  que  je 
messeye,  que  tu  messeyes,  qu'il  messeye,  que  nous  messeyions,  que 
vous  messeyiez,  qu'il  messeyent. 

49.  METTRE.  — Mettant,  mis.     Pres.  ind.,  je  mets,  tu  mets,  il  met, 
nous  mettons,  vous   mettez,  ils  mettent.     Past  def.,  je   mis.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  mis.    Pres.  subj.  que  je  mette.    Imp.  subj.,  que  je  misse. 

50.  MOUDRE.  — Moulant,  moulu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  mouds,  tu  mouds, 
il  moud,   nous  moulons,   vous  moulez,  ils  moulent.     Past  def.,  je 
moulus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  moulu.     Fut.,  je   moudrai.     Pres.  subj., 
que  je  moule.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  moulusse. 

51.  MOURIR. — Mourant,  mort.     Pres.  ind.,  je  incurs,  tu  meurs,  il 
meurt,  nous  mourons,  vous  inourez,  ils  meurent.    Past  def.,  je  mourus. 
Past   indef.,  je   suis  mort.     Fut.,   je   mourrai.     Pres.  subj.,  que   je 
meure,  que  nous  mourions.     Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  mourusse. 

i  Mostly  found  on  gravestone  inscriptions.    Ex.:  Ci-yit '  here  rest,  here  lies.' 


56  FEENCH   GEAMMAE. 

52.  MOUVOIR. — Mouvant,  mu,  fern.  mue.     Pres.  ind.,  je  meus,  tu 
meus,  il  meut,  nous  mouvons,  vous  mouvez,  ils  meuvent.     Past  def. , 
je  mus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  mu.     Fut.,  je  mouvrai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je 
meuve,  que  nous  mouvions.     Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  musse. 

53.  NAITRE.  —  Naissant,  ne\     Pres.  ind. ,  je  nais,  tu  nais,  il  nait, 
nous  naissons,  vous  naissez,  ils  naissent.    Imp.,  je  naissais.    Past  def., 
je  naquis.     Past  indef.,  je  suis  lie".     Fut.,  je  naitrai.     Pres.  subj.,  que 
je  naisse.     Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  naquisse. 

54.  NUIRE. — Nuisant,  nui.     Pres.  ind.,  je  nuis,  tu  iiuis,  il  nuit, 
nous  nuisoiis,  vous  nuisez,  ils  nuiseiit.     Past  def.,  je  nuisis.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  nui.    Pres.  subj.,  que  je  nuise.    Imp.  subj.,  que  je  nuisisse. 

55.  OFFRIR.  —  Offraiit,  offert.    Pres,  ind.,  j' off  re,  tu  offres,  il  offre, 
nous  offrons,  vous  offrez,  ils  off  rent.     Past  def.,  j'offris.     Past  indef., 
j'ai  offert.     Pres.  subj.,  que  j' off  re.     Imp.  subj.,  Que  j'offrisse. 

56.  OINDRE. — Oignant,  oint.     Pres.  ind.,  j'oins,  tu  oins,  il  oint, 
nous  oignons,  vous  oignez,  ils  oignent.      Past  def.,  j'oignis.      Past 
indef.,  j'ai  oint.     Pres.  subj.,  que  j'oigne. 

57.  OUIR. — Oyant,  oui'.     Only  used  in  the  following  forms:  Past 
def.,  j'oui's,  tu  ou'is,  il  ou'it,  nous  ouimes,  vous  ouites,  ils  ouirent.    Imp. 
subj.,  que  j'oui'sse,  que  tu  ouisses,  qu'il  ouit,  que  nous  oui'ssions,  que 
vous  ou'issiez,  qu'ils  oui'ssent. 

58.  PAITRE. — Paissant,  pu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  pais,  tu  pais,  il  pait, 
nous  paissons,  vous  paissez,  ils  paissent.    Imp.,  je  paissais.    No  past 
def.,  no  compound  tenses.     Fut.,  je  paitrai.    Pres.  subj.,  que  je  paisse. 
No  imp.  subj. 

59.  PARTIR.  —  Partant,  parti.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  pars,  tu  pars,  il  part, 
nous  partons,  vous  partez,  ils  partent.     Past  def.,  je  partis.     Past 
indef.,  je  suis  parti  (or  sometimes  j'ai  parti).    Pres.  subj.,  que  je  parte. 

GO.  PLAIRE. — Plaisant,  plu.  Pres.  ind.,  je  plais,  tu  plais,  il  plait, 
nous  plaisons,  vous  plaisez,  ils  plaisent.  Past  def.,  je  plus.  Past 
indef.,  j'ai  plu. 

61.  PLEUVOIR. — Pleuvaiit,  plu.     Impersonal.     Pres.  ind.,  il  pleut. 
Imp.,  il  pleuvait.     Past  def.,  il  plut.     Past  indef.,  il  a  plu.     Fut.,  il 
pleuvra.     Pres.  subj.,  qu'il  pleuve.     Imp.  subj.,  qu'il  plut. 

62.  POURVOIR. — Pourvoyant,  pourvu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  pourvois,  tu 
pourvois,  il  pourvoit,  nous   pourvoyons,   vous   pourvoyez,   ils  pour- 
voient.     Past  def.,  je   pourvus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  pourvu.     Fut.,  je 
pourvoirai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  pourvoie. 

63.  POUVOIR.  —  Pouvant,  pu.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  puis  or  je  peux,  tu 
peux,  il  peut,  nous  pouvons,  vous  pouvez,  ils  peuvent.     Past  def.,  je 


VERBS.  57 

pus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  pu.     Fut.,  je  pourrai.     No  imperative.     Pres. 
subj.,  que  je  puisse,  que  nous  puissions.    Imp.  subj.,  que  je  pusse. 

64.  PRENDRE. —  Prenant,  pris.     Pres.  ind.,  je  prends,  tu  prends, 
il  prend,  nous  prenons,  vous  prenez,  ils  premieiit.     Past  def. ,  je  pris. 
Past  indef.,  j'ai  pris.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  prenne,  que  nous  prenions. 
Imp.  subj.,  que  je  prisse. 

65.  PREVALOIR.  —  See  valoir,  except  for  the  pres.  subj.  which  is  as 
follows  :   que  je  prerale,  que  tu  prerales,  qu'il  pre>ale,  que  nous  pre"- 
valions,  que  vous  prevaliez,  qu'ils  prevalent. 

66.  PREVOIR.  —  See  voir  except  for  the  fut.  and  cond.  which  are  : 
je  prdvoirai,  je  pre>oirais,  etc.  (not  je  pre>errai,  etc.). 

67.  PROMOUVOIR.  —  See  mouvoir.    Past  part. ,  promu.    Rarely  used 
except  in  the  infinitive  and  the  compound  tenses.    J'ai  promu,  etc. 

68.  RAVOIR.  — Only  used  in  the  infinitive,  and  the  fut.,  je   raurai, 
etc.,  and  the  cond.,  je  raurais. 

69.  REPA!TRE.  —  See  paitre,  except  that  repaitre  has  the  past  def. , 
je  repus,  and  the  past  part.,  repu,  and  the  compound  tenses.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  repu,  etc. 

70.  RESOUDRE. — Re'solvant,    rdsolu.      Pres.    ind.,    je    re'sous,   tu 
re'sous,  il  re'sout,  nous  re'solvons,  vous  re'solvez,  ils  resolvent.     Imp., 
je  r^solvais.     Past  def.,  je  re'solus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  re"solu.     Pres. 
subj. ,  que  je  re'solve.     Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  resolusse. 

71.  RIRE. — Riant,  ri.     Pres,  ind.,  je  ris,  tu  ris,  il  rit,  nous  rions, 
vous  riez,  ils  rient.     Past  def.,  je  ris.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  ri.     Fut.,  je 
rirai.    Pres.  subj.,  que  je  rie,  que  tu  ries,  qu'il  rie,  que  nous  riions,  que 
vous  riiez,  qu'ils  rient.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  risse. 

72.  SAVOIR.  —  Sachant,  su.    Pres.  ind.,  je  sais,  tu  sais,  il  sait,  nous 
savons,  vous  savez,  ils  savent.     Past  def.,  je  sus.    Past  indef.,  j'ai  su. 
Fut.,  je  saurai.     Imperative,  sache,  sachons,  sachez.     Pres.  subj.,  que 
je  sache,  que  nous  sachions.     Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  susse. 

73.  SEOIR. — Seant,  sis   (=  asseoir  *to   sit').     Has  only  the  pres. 
ind. ,  je  sieds,  tu  sieds,  il  sied,  nous  seyons,  vous  seyez,  ils  seient,  and 
the  imperative,  sieds-toi,  seyons-nous,  seyez-vous. 

74.  SEOIR.  —  Seyant  or  sdant.     No  past  part.     (—  to  be  suitable, 
becoming.)    Has  only  the  following  forms:  Pres.  ind.,  il  sied,  ils  sie'ent. 
Imp.,  il  seyait,  ils  seyaient.     Fut.,  il  si6ra,   ils  sie'ront.     Cond.,  il 
sierait,  ils  sieraient.     Pres.  subj.,  qu'il  sie'e,  qu'ils  sieent. 

75.  SERVIR.  —  Servant,  servi.     Pres.  ind.,  je  sers,  tu  sers,  il  sert, 
nous  servons,  vous  servez,  ils  servent.     Past  def.,  je  servis.     Past 
indef. ,  j'ai  servi.   Pres,  subj.,  que  je  serve.  Imp*  subj^  qtie  je  servi§se,t 

f 


58  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

76.  SOURDRE.  —  Sourdant.      No  past   part.      Only  the   following 
forms  are  in  use  :  Pres.  ind.,  il  sourd,  ils  sourdent.    Imp.,  il  sourdait. 
Past  def.,  il  sourdit.     Fut.,  il  sourdra.     Cond.,  il  sourdrait.     Pres. 
subj.,  qu'il  sourde.     Imp.  subj.,  qu'il  sourdit. 

77.  SUFFIRE.  —  Suffisant,  suffi.     The  past  part,  is  only  used  in  the 
masc.  sing.     Pres.  ind.,  je   suffis,  tu  suffiis,  il  suffit,  nous  suffisons, 
vous  suffisez,  ils  suffisent.     Past  def.,  je  suffis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  suffi. 
Pres.  subj.,  que  je  suffise.    Imp.  subj.,  que  je  suffisse. 

78.  SUIVRE.  —  Suivant,  suivi.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  suis,  tu  suis,  il  suit, 
nous  suivons,  vous  suivez,  ils  suivent.     Past  def.,  je  suivis.     Past 
indef.,  j'ai  suivi.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  suive. 

79.  SURSEOIR. — Sursoyant,  sursis.     Pres.  ind.,  je  sursois,  tu  sur- 
sois,   il  sursoit,  nous  sursoyons,  vous  sursoyez,  ils  sursoient.      Past 
def.,  je  sursis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  sursis.     Fut.,  je  surseoirai.     Pres. 
subj.,  que  je  sursoie.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  sursisse. 

80.  TRAIRE.  — Trayant,  trait.     Pres.  ind.,  je  trais,  tu  trais,  il  trait, 
nous  trayons,  vous  trayez,  ils  traient.     Imp.,   je  trayais.     No  past 
def.     Past  indef.,   j'ai  trait.      Fut.,   je  trairai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je 
traie,  que  tu  traies,  qu'il  traie,  que  nous  trayions,  que  vous  trayiez, 
qu'ils  traient.     No  imp.  subj. 

81.  TRESSAILLIR. — Tressaillant,  tressailli.     Pres.  ind.,  je  tressaille, 
tu  tressailles,  il  tressaille,  nous  tressaillons,  vous  tressaillez,  ils  tres- 
saillent.     Past  def.,  je  tressaillis.     Past,  indef.,  j'ai  tressailli.     Im- 
perative, tressaille.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  tressaille. 

82.  VAINCRE. — Yainquant,    vaincu.      Pres.    ind.,   je   vaincs,    tu 
vaincs,  il  vainc,  nous  vainquons,  vous  vainquez,  ils  vainquent.     Past 
def.,  je  vainquis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  vaincu.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  vain- 
que. 

83.  VALOIR.  — Valant,  valu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  vaux,  tu  vaux,  il  vaut, 
nous  valons,  vous  valez,  ils  valent.     Past  def.,  je  valus.     Past  indef., 
j'ai  valu.     Fut.,  je  vaudrai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  vaille,  que  tu  vailles, 
qu'il  vaille,  que  nous  valions,  que  vous  valiez,  qu'ils  vaillent.     Imp. 
subj.,  que  je  valusse. 

84.  VENIR.  —  Yenant,  venu.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  viens,  tu  viens,  il  vient, 
nous  venons,  vous  venez,  ils  viennent.     Imp.,  je  venais.     Past  def., 
je  vins,  tu  vins,  il  vint,  nous  vinmes,  vous  vmtes,  ils  vinrent.     Fut., 
je  viendrai.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  vienne,  que  tu  viennes,  qu'il  vienne, 
que  nous  venions,  que  vous  veniez,  qu'ils  viennent.     Imp.  subj.,  que 
je  vinsse,  que  tu  vinsses,  qu'il  vint,  que  nous  vinssions,  que  vous  vins- 
siez,  qu'ils  vinssent 


VERBS. 


59 


85.  VETIR.  —  Vetant,  vetu.     Pres.  ind. ,  je  vets,  tu  vets,  il  v£t,  nous 
vetons,  vous  vetez,  ils  vetent.     Past  def.,  je  vetis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai 
vetu.     Pres.  subj. ,  que  je  vete. 

86.  VIVRE. — Yivant,  vfei.     Pres.  ind.,  je  vis,  tu  vis,  il  vit,  nous 
vivons,  vous  vivez,  ils  vivent.     Past  def.,  je  ve"cus.     Past  indef.,  j'ai 
ve"cu.     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  vive.     Imp.  subj.,  que  je  ve"cusse. 

87.  VOIR. — Voyant,  vu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  vois,  tu  vois,  il  voit,  nous 
voyons,  vous  voyez,  ils  voient.     Past  def.,  je  vis.     Past  indef.,  j'ai  vu. 
Fut.,  je  verrai.      Pres.  subj.,  que  je  voie,  que  nous  voyions.     Imp. 
subj. ,  que  je  visse. 

88.  VOULOIR. — Voulant,  voulu.     Pres.  ind.,  je  veux,  tu  veux,  il 
veut,  nous  voulons,  vous  voulez,  ils  veulent.     Past  def.,  je  voulus. 
Past  indef.,  j'ai  voulu.     Fut.,  je  voudrai.     Imperative,  veux>  voulons 
voulez  (with  the  meaning  of  will  =  make  use  of  your  will)  and  veuille, 
veuillons,  veuillez  (with  the  meaning  be  kind  enough  to  —  another 
verb  in  the  infinitive  following).     Pres.  subj.,  que  je  veuille,  que  nous 
voulions.     Imp.  subj. ,  que  je  voulusse. 


CONJUGATION   OF   INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  WITH  «ETRE.' 

K         (See  page  46.) 

They  are  conjugated  as  follows  : 

Arriver  *To  arrive,  to  come.' 


Pres.  inf. — Arriver. 

Past  inf.  — Eire  arrive'.1 

Pres.  part.  — Arrivant. 

Past  part.  — Arrive,  etant  arrive'. 

Pres.  ind. — J"'  arrive. 

Imp.  — Ji  arrivals. 

Past  def.  —  J"1  arrival. 

Past  indef.— 

Je  suis  arrive 'I  have  arrived, 
or  come,' 

Tu  es  arrive, 

II  est  arrive, 

Nous  sommes  arrives, 

Vous  etes  arrives, 

Ils  sont  arrives. 


Pluperf.  —  J^tais  arrive'. 

Past  ant.  —  Je  fus  arrive. 

Fut.  — J'arriverai. 

Fut.  ant.  —  Je  serai  arrive. 

Cond.  — J"*  arriverais. 

Past  cond.  —  Je  serais  arrive. 

Imperative.  — Arrive,    arrivons, 

arrivez. 

Pres.  subj.  — Que  j1  arrive. 
Imp.  subj. — Quej'arrivasse. 
Perf.  subj.  — Queje  sois  arrive. 
Pluperf.  —  Que  je  fusse  arrive". 


1  The  participle  agrees  in  gender  and  number  with  the  subject. 


60  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

CONJUGATION  OF  REFLEXIVE   VERBS. 

Reflexive  verbs,  whatever  may  be  their  meaning,  are 
always  conjugated  by  the  aid  of  the  auxiliary  etre,  in 
almost  every  case,  to  be  rendered  into  English  by  'have/ 
For  the  extensive  use  in  French  of  these  verbs  see  the 
part  of  the  Syntax  relating  to  them  (page  85). 

Se  promener  *To  take  a  walk.' 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  —  Se  promener.  Past.  —  S'etre  promene. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.  —  Se  promenant.  Past.  — Promene. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  —  Past  indef.  — 

Jeraepro7ftefte'Itakeawalk,'  Je  me  suis  promene,  or  pro- 

Tu  te  promenes,  menee, 

C II  se  promene,  Tu  t  'es  promene',  or  promenee, 

•<  Elle  se  promene,  (II  s'est  promene, 

[  On  se  promene,  -I  Elle  s'est  promenee, 

Nous  nous  promenons,  [  On  s'est  promene, 

Vous  vous  promenez,  Nous  nous  sommes  promenes, 

{  Us  se  promenent,  or  promenees, 

}  Elles  se  promenent.  Vous  vous  etes  promenes,  or 

Imp.  —  promenees, 

Je  me  promenais.  Us  se  sont  promenes, 

Elles  se  sont  promene'es. 
Pluperf.  — Je  m^etais  promene,  or  promenee. 
Past  ant.  —  Je  me  fus  promene,  or  promenee. 
Fut.  —  Je  me  promenerai. 
Fut.  ant.  —  Je  me  serais  promene,  or  promenee. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Promene-toi,  promenons-nous,  promenez-vous. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  —  Que  je  me  promene. 
Imp.  —  Que  je  me  promenasse. 
Perf.  —  Que  je  me  sois  promeng,  or  promene'e. 
Pluperf*  —  Que  je  me  fusse  promen6,  or  promene'e. 


VERBS.  61 

CONJUGATION  OF  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

They  have  only  the  third  person  singular,  the  subject 
being  il  (it). 

Pleuvoir  '  To  rain.' 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  —  Pleuvoir.  Past.  —  Avoir  plu. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.  —  Pleuvant.  Past.  —  Plu,  ay  ant  plu. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  —  II  pleut  *  It  rains. '  Imp.  —  II  pleuvait. 

Past  def.  —  II  plut.  Past  indef.  —  II  a  plu. 

Pluperf.  —  II  avait  plu.  Past  ant.  —  II  eut  plu. 

Fut.  —  II  pleuvra.  Fut.  ant.  — II  aura  plu. 

CONDITIONAL. 
Pres.  —  II  pleuvrait.  Past.  —  II  aurait  plu. 

(No  imperative.) 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  —  Qu'il  pleuve.  Imp.  —  Qu'il  plut. 

Perf.  —  Qu'il  ale  plu.  Pluperf.  —  Qu'il  eut  plu. 

NEGATIVE  FORMS. 

French  negatives  consist  of  two  parts,  the  one  being  the 
negation  proper  and  the  other  the  qualification.  The  latter 
indicates  the  force  or  the  extent  of  the  negation.  There 
are  three  degrees  of  force  in  the  general  negative. 

a)  Ne  .  .  .  guere,  a  weak  negation  admitting  the  possi- 
bility of  exceptions,   commonly  translated  in  English  by 
hardly,  scarcely,  but  little,  or  similar  expressions. 

b)  Ne  .  .  .  pas,  the  common  negative. 

c)  Ne  .  .  .  point,  the  strong  negative. 

The  difference  between  the  last  two  forms  can  be  ren- 
dered in  English  only  by  the  general  force  of  the  sentence, 
and  both  are  commonly  translated  not. 


62  FRENCH    GRAMMAR, 

Ne  precedes  the  verb,  and  guere,  pas,  point,  etc.,  follow. 
Ex. :  Je  ne  veux  pas  que  vous  m'ecriviez,  '  I  do  not  wish 
you  to  write  to  me/  With  the  infinitive,  however,  both 
particles  must  be  placed  together  before  the  verb.  Ex.: 
Ne  pas  lire,  c'est  se  priver  d'un  grand  plaisir,  '  Not  to  read 
is  to  deprive  one's  self  of  a  great  pleasure.7  Ne  pas  avoir 
lu,  'Not  to  have  read.' 

Other  negations  in  common  use  are  :  ne  .  .  .  jamais 
'never/  ne  .  .  .  plus  'no  more,  no  longer/  ne  .  .  .  rien 
'  nothing/  ne  .  .  .  personne  '  nobody/  Ex. :  II  ne  chante 
jamais,  '  He  never  sings.'  II  ne  chante  plus,  '  He  sings  no 
more.7  II  n'a  rien  entendu,  '  He  has  heard  nothing.7  II  n'a 
vu  personne,  '  He  has  seen  nobody.7 

REMARK.  —  1.  In  compound  tenses  the  auxiliary  is  the 
verb,  and  the  negatives  are  placed  accordingly.  Ex.:  Je 
n'ai  pas  vu  votre  ami  de  longtemps,  '  I  have  not  seen  your 
friend  for  a  long  time.7  Eor  interrogative-negative  sen- 
tences see  page  64. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  omitted  in  an  elliptical  sentence,  the 
ne  part  of  the  negative  is  also  omitted,  and  the  words  pas, 
point,  personne,  guere,  rien,  etc.,  assume  a  negative  value 
which  does  not  essentially  belong  to  them.     Ex. :   Qui  va 
la?    Personne  (i.  e.,  Personne  ne  va  la),  'Who  is  there  ? 
Nobody.      (Personne  properly  means  somebody,  a  person.) 
Qu'avez-vous  la  ?     Rien,   (i.  e.,  Je  n'ai  rien),  '  What  have 
you  there  ?     Nothing.'      (Rien   properly   means    a  thing, 
something.) 

3.  Pas  may  be  omitted  and  ne  be  used  alone  with  the  verbs 
pouvoir  '  to  be  able/  cesser  '  to  cease/  oser  '  to  dare/  when 
they  are  followed  by  an  infinitive ;  in  other  cases  it  is  more 
correct  to  use  it,  although  examples  of  that  omission  are 
found.       Ex.:    H   ne    cesse  de   repeter  qu'il  n'est  plus  le 
premier,  '  He  constantly  repeats  that  he  is  no  longer  the 
first.'     But  Pouvez-vons  m'accompngner?    Je  ne  peux  pas, 


VERBS.  63 

*rather  than  je  ne  peux.  Je  ne  puis  is  a  more  classical  form 
than  je  ne  peux  pas.  Bouger  '  to  budge 7  is  sometimes  used 
with  ne  only.  II  ne  bouge  de  cette  maison,  '  He  never  stirs 
from  that  house.7 

4.  Pas  OT  point  are  always  omitted  after  savoir  used  in  the 
sense  of  pouvoir  '  to  be  able,  to  be  capable.7     Ex. :  Je  ne 
saurais  en  venir  a  bout,  'I  cannot  do  it7  (i.  e.?  come  to  the 
end  of  it).    After  savoir  'to  know'  the  omission  is  optional. 
Ex. :  Je  ne  sais  or  je  ne  sais  pas  s'il  viendra,  *  I  do  not  know 
whether  he  will  come/ 

But  they  are  always  omitted  when  savoir  is  followed 
by  the  conjunctive  or  interrogative  pronouns  qui,  que,  or 
quoi,  or  the  interrogative  adjective  quel.  Ex. :  Je  ne  sais  a 
qui  parler,  'I  do  not  know  to  whom  to  speak.7  Je  ne  sais 
quoi  (or  que)  faire,  '  I  do  not  know  what  to  do.7  Je  ne  sais 
quelle  contenance  garder,  'I  do  not  know  how  to  look7 
(i.  e.,  how  to  keep  my  countenance). 

5.  Pas  and  point  are  also  omitted  in  such  expressions  as : 
je  n'ai  garde  de,  je  n'ai  cure  de  '  far  from  me  to/  '  I  do 
not  care  to7;  n'importe  'no  matter/  a  Dieu  ne  plaise  'God 
forbid/  qu'a  cela  ne  tienne  'do  not  let  that  interfere.7 

After  qui  or  que  expressing  a  regret  or  a  wish.  Que 
ne  vient-il!  'Oh!  why  doesn7t  he  come!7  Qui  de  nous  n'a 
ses  defauts  ?  '  Who  among  us  is  without  his  faults  ? 7 

Before  que  or  quoi,  interrogative.  Ex.:  Je  ne  sais  quoi 
de  superieur  se  voit  en  lui,  'One  sees  in  him  I  do  not  know 
what  superiority.7  Je  n'ai  que  faire  de  vos  dons,  'I  have 
no  use  for  your  gifts 7  (i.  e.?  I  do  not  know  what  to  do  with 
your  gifts).  [MOLIERE.] 

In  clauses  united  by  ne  .  .  .  ni.  Ex. :  II  ne  boit,  ni  ne 
mange,  'He  neither  drinks  nor  eats.7 

In  a  restrictive  clause  with  ne  .  .  .  que  'only.7  Ex.: 
IL  n'y  a  que  la  prose  ou  les  vers,  'There  is  only  prose  or 
verse.'  [MOLIERE.] 


64  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

NOTE.  —  Ne  may  be  used  without  pas  or  point  after  tha 
conditional  conjunction  si,  and  after  the  expressions  depuis 
que,  and  il  y  a  followed  by  que,  in  the  sense  of  since.  Ex. : 
Si  je  ne  me  trompe,  votre  ami  est  Fran$ais,  'If  I  am  not 
mistaken  your  friend  is  a  Frenchman.'  II  a  bien  change 
depuis  que  je  ne  Pai  vie,  'He  has  greatly  changed  since  I 
saw  him.'  II  y  a  six  mois  que  je  ne  Vai  vu,  'It  is  six  months 
since  I  saw  him.' 

INTERROGATIVE   FORMS. 

The  common  interrogative  form  is  made  by  reversing  the 
order  of  the  verb  and  the  pronoun.  Ex. :  Je  vois,  vois-je  ?  Us 
vont,  vont-ils  ?  On  vient,  vient-on  ?  When  the  first  person 
ends  in  e  mute,  this  letter  is  changed  into  e.  Ex. :  Aime-je  ? 

Between  the  third  person  sing,  of  the  pres.  ind.  of  the 
verbs  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  the  pronoun,  insert  a  t, 
enclosed  by  two  hyphens.  Ex. :  Parle-t-il  ?  Va-t-il  ? 

Another  form  is  made  by  placing  est-ce  que  before  the 
personal  forms  of  the  verb.  Ex. :  ^Est-ce  que  nous  voyons  ? 
Est-ce  que  je  marche  ?  For  reasons  of  euphony,  this  form 
is  used  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  with  certain 
monosyllabic  verbs  in  the  first  pers.  sing.  pres.  ind.  Ex. : 
JZst-ce  que  je  rends,  not  rends-je  ? 

In  negative-interrogative  sentences,  the  pronouns  remain 
next  to  the  verb,  the  two  parts  of  the  negative  enclosing 
both.  Ex. :  Ne  savons-nous  pas  ce  qu'il  a  fait  ?  '  Do  we  not 
know  what  he  has  done  ? '  Ne  Savons-nous  pas  vu  ?  '  Have 
we  not  seen  it  ? ' 

For  English  auxiliaries  used  interrogatively  for  confir- 
mation of  something  expressed,  see  page  33. 

USE  OF  THE  AUXILIARIES  "AVOIR"  AND  «ETRE." 
Avoir  is  used  in  the  compound  forms:  1st,  of  all  transi- 
tive verbs  in  the  active  voice ;  2d,  of  the  impersonals ;  3rd, 
of  a  large  number  of  intransitive  verbs. 


VERBS.  65 

Eire  is  used  for  all  the  compound  forms  of  the  passive 
voice,  with  all  reflexive  verbs,  and  with  a  number  of 
intransitive  verbs. 

IN  REGARD  TO  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS. 

EEMARK.  —  1.  Most  intransitive  verbs  are  conjugated 
with  avoir,  because  they  express  the  idea  of  some  activity, 
some  motion  performed  by  the  subject.  To  this  class 
belong  courir  'to  run/  marcher  'to  walk/  bondir  'to  leap/ 
sauter  'to  jump/  voyager  'to  travel/  couler  'to  flow/ 
paraitre  '  to  appear/  vivre  '  to  live/  dormir  '  to  sleep/  rougir 
'to  blush/  reussir  'to  succeed/  suffire  'to  suffice/  etc. 
Occasional  exceptions  are  found.  Ex.:  J'y  suis  eouru, 
'  I  hurried  thither/  [BACTNE.] 

2.  Some    intransitives   are    conjugated   with    etre   only. 
They  are   aller  '  to  go/  arriver  '  to  come,  to  arrive/  entrer 
'to  enter/  rentrer  'to  go  in  again,  to  return/  retourner  'to 
go  back,  to   return/  venir  'to   come/   advenir  'to   occur/ 
devenir  '  to  become/  entrevenir  '  to  intervene/  parvenir  '  to 
attain/  provenir  'to  issue/  revenir  'to  come  back/  survenir 
'to  come  or  happen  unexpectedly/  c7i0i>  'to  fall/  ecJioir  'to 
lapse/  deceder  'to  expire/  mourir  'to   die/   naitre  'to    be 
born/  e'cZore  '  to  open,  to  dawn ' ;  in  which  the  French  con- 
sider   not    so    much   the    inherent  activity  as   the    result 
attained,  the  state  that  has  been  reached. 

3.  A  number  of  intransitives  are  conjugated  either  with 
avoir  or  etre;  with  avoir,  whenever  the  idea  of  an  action  is 
the  dominant  one,  and  with  etre,  whenever  the  situation 
is  prominently  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.     Ex. :  Je  suis 
tombe,  'I  am  lying  down,  having  fallen.'    J'ai  tombe,  'I  did 
fall.5     In  some  cases,  usage  has  attributed  different  mean- 
ings to  the  verb.     Ex.:    Convenir  (with  avoir)  'to  be  agree- 
able, to  be  suitable/     II  lui  a  eonvenu  de  rester,  'It  suited 


66  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

him  to  stay.'  Convenir  (with  etre)  'to  make  an  agreement, 
to  confess.'  Je  suis  convenu  avec  lui  du  prix,  'I  agreed 
with  him  on  the  price.7 

Some  of  the  principal  verbs  taking  either  auxiliary  are: 
accourir  '  to  run  forward/  apparaitre  '  to  appear/  disparaitre 
'to  disappear/  croitre  'to  grow,  to  increase/  decroitre  'to 
decrease/  recroitre  'to  grow  again/  aborder  'to  come  near/ 
deborder  '  to  overflow/  dechoir  '  to  decline,  to  fall  off/  cesser 
'to  cease/  changer  'to  change/  diminuer  'to  diminish/ 
baisser  '  to  lower/  passer  '  to  pass/  sortir  '  to  go  out/  monter 
'to  ascend/  descendre  'to  descend/  partir  'to  depart/ 
eckapper '  to  escape/'  rester  '  to  remain/  demeurer  '  to  dwell/ 
resulter  '  to  follow/  expirer  '  to  expire/  jpe'm* '  to  perish/  etc. 

It  must  also  be  understood  that  whenever  intransitive 
verbs  are  used  transitively,  with  a  direct  object,  they  are  as  a 
matter  of  course  conjugated  with  avoir.  Ex.:  Descendre  'to 
descend.'  II  est  descendu,  '  He  has  come  down  stairs  ' ;  but 
say//  a  descendu  I9escalier}  'He  has  come  down  the  staircase.' 

SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB. 

a)   AGREEMENT   OF  THE  VERB   AND   SUBJECT. 

The  rules  are  so  nearly  alike  in  French  and  English  that 
a  brief  summary  with  special  notice  of  a  few  differences  is 
all  that  seems  necessary. 

RULES.  —  A  verb  agrees  in  number  and  person  with  its 
subject  ;  several  subjects  in  the  singular  require  the  verb 
in  the  plural;  if  the  subjects  are  synonyms,  or  if  there  is  a 
gradation,  and  the  last  is  more  emphatic  than  all  the  others, 
the  verb  is  in  the  singular  ;  whenever  the  subjects  are  of 
different  persons,  the  first  person  has  the  preference  over 
the  others,  and  the  second  over  the  third. 

REMARK.  —  1.  After  I'un  et  Vautre  the  verb  may  be 
either  in  the  singular  or  in  the  plural.  Ex. :  L'une  et  Vau- 
tre  viendra  or  viendront,  '  Both  will  come.' 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VE11B.  67 

2.  After  subjects  connected  by  ou  or  ni,  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  one  nearest  the  verb  if  the  action  or  state  cannot 
affect  them  all,  but  if  it  does  affect  them  all,  then  the  verb 
must  be   plural.     Ex. :    Ni  Vune  ni  Vautre  n'est  ma  mere, 
'  Neither  one  is  my  mother.'     Son  per e  ou  son  fr ere  viendra, 
'  His  father  or  his   brother  will  come:'     Ni  mon  frere,  ni 
ma  so3ur  ne  viendront,  '  Neither  my  brother  nor  my  sister 
will  come.'    Sa  vanite  ou  son  orgueil  le  perdront,  '  His  vanity 
or  his  pride  will  destroy  him.'      (The  one  is  not  exclusive 
of  the  other.) 

3.  After  a  collective  noun  in  the  singular,  consult  the 
sense.     Ex. :  La  foule  etait  agitee  en  divers  sens,  '  The  crowd 
(as  a  whole)  was  agitated  by  diverse  feelings.'      Une  foule 
d'hommes  s'imaginent  etre  seuls  raisonnables,    '  Many   men 
think  that  they   alone   are  reasonable.'      Notice  however 
that  nouns  in  the  singular  denoting  assemblies  acting  as  a 
unit,  require  the  verb  in  the  singular.     Ex. :  La  commission 
du  budget  a  approuve  le  projet  de  loi,  '  The  committee  on 
finance  has  approved  the  bill.' 

4.  For  ce  with  etre,  see  page  27. 

6)   USE   OF  THE   TENSES   IN  THE  INDICATIVE  MODE. 

The  indicative  is  essentially  the  mode  of  reality.  There- 
fore all  direct  and  simple  statements  must  be  expressed  in 
the  indicative. 

Present. 

Notice,  that  in  French  the  present  tense  represents  the 
usual  English  form  and  also  the  progressive  and  emphatic 
forms.  (The  auxiliary  etre  must  never  be  used  with  the 
present  participle  as  "  to  be "  is  used  in  English  to  express 
the  present.  Ex. :  Je  vais  means  /  go,  I  am  going,  or 
/  do  go. 

If  an  action  or  state  continues  up  to  the  present  time 
the  present  is  used  in  French,  although  the  English  requires 


68  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

a  past  tense.     Ex. :    Y  a-t-il  longtemps  que  vous  etes  avocat  ? 
'  Have  you  been  a  lawyer  for  a  long  time  ? ; 

The  present  is  used  to  express'  a  near  future,  and  in  rapid 
narrative  to  express  the  past.  Ex.:  Je  vais  a  la  poste,  'I 
am  about  to  go  to  the  post-office.'  A  peine  eut-il  apercu 
son  ennemi,  il  s'elance,  il  court,  il  vole,  '  Scarcely  had  he  per- 
ceived his  enemy,  when  he  darted  forward,  he  ran,  he  flew. ' 

NOTE.  —  Si  (if),  preceding  a  reasoning  or  something  we 
believe  to  be  true,  takes  the  pres.  indie.,  as  in  English. 
Ex.:  Si  je  veux,  il  viendra,  'If  it  is  my  will,  he  will  come.7 
Si  cela  est,  venez,  'If  that  is  so,  do  come.7  Si  (if),  preceding 
a  conditional  clause  requires  the  imp.  indie.  Si  je  voulais, 
il  viendrait,  '  If  I  were  willing,  he  would  come.'  Si  cela 
etait,  que  feriez-vous?  'If  that  were  so,  what  would  you 
do  ? '  For  si  (whether)  see  the  conditional,  page  74. 

Imperfect. 

The  French  imperfect  has  no  complete  equivalent  in 
English.  The  progressive  past  is  always  rendered  in 
French  by  the  imperfect,  but  the  use  of  the  latter  is  far 
more  extended. 

The  French  imperfect  is  used  to  express  a  past  which 
is  not  determined  as  to  time,  extent,  or  duration;  we  do 
not  see  it  begin,  nor  do  we  see  it  end.  We  know  it  has 
ended,  because  it  is  a  past;  but  we  know  nothing  more,  or 
at  least  do  not  care  to  state  more. 

Hence  the  imperfect  is  employed : 

1.  In  descriptions  of  all  kinds,  of  natural  features,  of 
situations  as  they  were,  of  habits,  of  customs,  etc.  Ex. : 
La  scene  sur  la  terre  n'etait  pas  moins  ravissante.  Le  jour 
veloute  et  bleudtre  de  la  lune  descendait  dans  les  intervalles 
des  arbres,  et  poussait  des  gerbes  de  lumiere  jusque  dans 
Vepaisseur  des  plus  profondes  tenebres.  La  riviere  qui  coulait 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  69 

a  mes  pieds,  tour  a  tour  se  perdait  dans  les  bois,  tour  a  tour 
reparaissait  toute  brillante  des  constellations  de  la  nuit  qu'elle 
repetait  dans  son  sein,  '  The  scene  on  the  land  was  not  the 
less  enchanting.  The  velvety  and  bluish  light  of  the  moon 
penetrated  the  intervening  spaces  between  the  trees,  and 
shot  forth  luminous  rays  into  the  recesses  of  flarkest 
gloom.  The  river  flowed  at  my  feet,  now  disappearing  in 
the  woods,  now  reappearing  all  aglow  with  the  brilliant 
constellations  of  the  night,  which  were  mirrored  on  its 
bosom.7  [CHATEAUBRIAXD.]  La  France  de  Louis  XI  etait 
bien  differ  ente  de  celle  que  nous  connaissons ;  ses  frontieres 
reculaient  a  certains  endroits  jusque  tout  pres  de  la  capitale, 
*  France  at  the  time  of  Louis  XI.  was  very  different  from 
the  Prance  we  know;  its  frontier  limits  receded  in  certain 
places  as  far  back  as  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  its 
capital.'  Pierre  se  levait  regulierement  a  quatre  Jieures  du 
matin ;  a  cinq  on  lui  apportait  un  petit  dejeuner ;  il  dinait 
a  onze,  il  ne  soupait  pointy  il  se  couchait  de  bonne  heure, 
'Peter  used  to  rise  regularly  at  four  o'clock;  at  five,  a  simple 
breakfast  was  brought  to  him;  he  dined  at  eleven,  did 
not  take  any  supper,  and  went  to  bed  early.7  [VOLTAIRE.] 

2.  To  express  accessory  details  mingled  with  the  narra- 
tive proper  of  successive  actions  which  are  necessarily  in 
the  past  definite  or  past  indefinite.      Ex.:    Je  suis  nee  a 
Venise ;  mon  pere  etait  noble  et  ma  mere  etait  noble  egale- 
ment ;  Us  s'aimaient,  on  les  unit,  et  je  naquis  de  cette  union, 
'  I  was  born  in  Venice  ;  my  father  and  my  mother  were 
both  noble  ;  they  loved  each  other,  were  united  in  marriage, 
and  I  was  the  offspring  of  that  union.7   [EuGEXE  SUE.] 

3.  To  express  simultaneous  and  parallel  actions  lasting 
an  undetermined  time.     Ex. :  Je  jouais  pendant  qu'il  ecri- 
vaitj  '  I  was  playing  while  he  was  writing.7 

4.  To  express  an  action  or  a  state  interrupted  by  an 
action  or  an  event  marked '  by  a  verb  in  the  past  definite] 


70  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Ex. :  II  etait  nuit  quand  je  sortis,  '  It  was  night  when  I  went 
out.'  Charles  avait  douze  ans  quand  il  perdit  sa  mere, 
'Charles  was  twelve  years  old  when  he  lost  his  mother/ 

5.  In  place  of  the  past  definite,  when  the  writer  wishes  us 
to  make  a  mind  picture  of  the  events.     (This  ought  not  to 
be  attempted  by  students  who  have  not  fully  mastered  the 
difficulties  in  the  usage  of  the  past  tenses.)     Ex. :  La  lec- 
ture finie,  le  pere  Alphee   se    dressait,   marchait  a  grand 
pas  .  .  .  plus  calme,  le  pere  Melchior  f elicit  ait  Meraut  sur 
son  livre,  'When  the  reading  was   over,   Father  Alpheus 
arose  and  walked  back  and  forth,  while  Father  Melchior, 
more    composed,    congratulated    Meraut    on    his    book.' 
[DAUDET.] 

6.  Sometimes  in  place  of  the  past  conditional  in  hypothet- 
ical sentences.      Ex. :  Si  le  loup  quelquefois  en  saisit  un  .  .  . 
tfest  ma  faute,  il  fallait  braver  ses  dents  avides,  'If  the  wolf 
sometimes  gets  hold  of  one  (lamb)  that  is  my  fault,  I  ought 
to  have  set  at  defiance  his  voracious  teeth.7  [CHENIER.] 

7.  After  si  (if)  expressing  a  real  condition,  or  implying 
a  doubt,  and  referring  either  to  a  present  or  a  future.     In 
this  case  the  principal  proposition  only  is  in  the  conditional. 
Ex.:  S'il  venait  nous  le  verrions,  'If   he  were  coming  we 
should  see  him.'     Si  je  voulais,  il  viendrait  immediatement. 
'If  I  were  willing,  he  would  come  at  once.'     (For  si  with 
the  present,  see  page  68.) 

Past  Definite. 

The  past  definite  is  the  historical  tense ;  that  is,  it  ex- 
presses action  in  the  direct  order  of  time,  or  assigns  a 
determined  time  to  an  event.  It  is  used  : 

1.  In  narratives  (not  descriptions)  to  mark  successive 
past  actions,  without  reference  to  the  idea  of  duration. 
Ex. :  Lorsque  mon  pere  voulut  partir,  je  le  priai  de  me  pren- 
dre  sur  son  cheval ;  il  y  consentit;  il  me  prit  done  sur  Varqon 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VEKB.  71 

de  sa  selle,  *  As  my  father  was  on  the  point  of  leaving,  I 
begged  him  to  take  me  on  his  horse  ;  he  consented  and 
placed  me  on  the  bow  of  his  saddle.' 

2.  When  two  facts  are  nearly  parallel  and  closely  succeed 
each  other  (compare  with  3  and  4  page  69).    Ex.:  Lor  squill 
nous  vit,  il  s'enfuit,  '  When  he  saw  us,  he  fled.' 

3.  After  a  verb  in  the  imperfect,  pluperfect,  or  past  an- 
terior to  express  the  beginning  of  the  narrative  proper,  or 
the  passage  from  description  to  narration.      (Se*e  4  page 
69.)     Ex. :  Apres  qu'il  eut  fini  son  ouvrage,  il  alia  trouve*  *, 
son  maitre,  'After  he  had  finished  his  work,  he  went  to  his 
master.7      Alexandre  avait   conquis   toute    VAsie  jusqu'aux 
Indes,  lorsqu'il   mourut  a  Babylone,    *  Alexander  had  con- 
quered the  whole  of  Asia  as  far  as  India,  when  he  died  at 
Babylon.' 

REMARK.  —  The  student  should  carefully  observe  the 
difference  between  the  use  of  the  imperfect  and  the  past 
definite  by  the  best  authors,  and  there  note  the  respective 
value  of  these  tenses.  The  imperfect  describes,  the  past 
definite  narrates,  the  imperfect  is  the  descriptive  past,  the 
past  definite  the  historical  past.  The  imperfect  calls  our 
attention  to  a  state,  the  past  definite  expresses  successive 
action ;  the  imperfect  expresses  simultaneity,  the  past 
definite,  succession.  It  is  not  the  absolute  duration  that 
makes  the  difference,  but  the  way  in  which  we  conceive  an 
action  to  have  taken  place.  The  same  action  can  be  pre- 
sented from  two  different  points  of  view.  J'etais  a  Paris, 
'  I  was  in  Paris/  supposes  that  I  think  of  my  being  there 
as  a  state  during  which  events  may  take  place.  Jetais  a 
Paris  quand  la  guerre  eclata,  'I  was  in  Paris  when  the  war 
broke  out.'  Je  fus  a  Paris,  puis  a  Rouen,  '  I  went  to  Paris 
then  to  Rouen.'  (This  is  an  action.)  Let  the  students 
examine  the  following  passage  from  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau 
and  explain  the  value  of  the  imperfects  and  past  dejinites : 


72  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

Absorbe  dans  ma  douce  reverie,  je  prolongeai  fort  avant 
dans  la  nuit  ma  promenade  sans  m'apercevoir  que  petals  la  ; 
je  m'en  apergus  enfin.  .  Je  me  couchai  voluptueusement  sur 
la  tablette  d^une  esp^ece  de  niche  ou  d' arcade  enfoncee  dans  un 
mur  terrasse  ;  le  del  de  mon  lit  etait  forme  par  les  ietes  des 
arbres  y  un  rossignol  etait  precisement  au-dessus  de  moi  ;  je 
m'endormis  a  son  chant ;  mon  sommeil  fut  doux,  mon  rev  ell 
le  fut  davantage.  II  etait  grand  jour ;  mes  yeux  en  s'ou- 
vrant  vir^nt  le  soleil,  Veau,  la  verdure,  un  pay  sage  admirable. 
Je  me  levai,  me  secouai,  la  faim  me  prit,  je  m'acheminai 
gaiement  vers  la  ville.1 

Past  Indefinite. 

The  past  indefinite  expresses  a  past  action  that  is  in  some 
relation  with  the  present  time  ;  either  the  period  to  which 
it  belongs  has  not  entirely  elapsed,  or  is  at  least  near  the 
current  one.  It  is  in  close  relation  with  the  past  definite, 
and  in  many  cases  either  one  of  the  two  tenses  may  be 
employed.  In  conversation  and  in  familiar  letters,  it  often 
takes  the  place  of  the  past  definite.  It  is  used  : 

1.  With  reference  to  past  events  within  a  period  that  is 
not  yet  complete,  or  is  next  or  near  the  existing  period. 
Ex. :  J'ai  recu  une  lettre  de  mon  ami  aujourd'hui,  *  I  have 
received  a  letter  from  my  friend  to-day.'     (The  day  is  not 
over.)     La  recolte  a  ete  bonne  cette  annee,  '  The  harvest  has 
been  fine  this  year.'     Ma  sceur  est  venue  me  voir  Vannee  der- 
niere,  '  My  sister  came  to  see  me  last  year.' 

2.  With  reference  to  events  considered  in  themselves  as 
complete  and  not  to  be  taken  as  one  in  a  series.      Ex.: 
Mirabeau  a  ete  le  grand  orateur  de  la  Revolution,  '  Mirabeau 

1  In  conversation  and  in  familiar  writing  the  frequent  use  of  the  past 
definite  is  considered  pedantic ;  it  characterizes  the  speech  of  the  Southern 
French.  Generally,  it  is  best  to  replace  it  by  the  past  indefinite,  except  in. 
rapid  narration, 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  73 

was  the  great  orator  of  the  revolution.'  Colomb  a  decou- 
vert  VAmerique,  '  Columbus  discovered  America.'  On  a 
gate  cet  enfant,  '  They  have  spoiled  this  child.' 

3.  Familiarly  to  express  a  near  future.  Ex. :  J'ai  fini 
dans  un  moment,  'I  shall  have  finished  in  a  moment/ 

Pluperfect  and  Past  Anterior. 

Both  tenses  mark  a  double  past l  (as  the  English  pluper- 
fect) but  the  pluperfect  corresponds  with  the  imperfect, 
and  the  past  anterior  with  the  past  definite.  The  pluper- 
fect does  not  determine  the  time  with  precision.  On  the 
contrary,  the  past  anterior  is  only  used  after  locutions  like 
quand  '  when/  aussitot  que  '  as  soon  as/  a  peine  .  .  .  que 
'hardly/  the  precise  time  which.  Ex.:  La  France  avait 
longtemps  supports  le  gouvernement  des  rois  quand  la  Revo- 
lution eclata,  *  France  had  long  borne  the  rule  of  kings, 
when  the  revolution  broke  out.'  (Notice  that  quand  does 
not  take  the  past  anterior  here  because  it  does  not  refer  to 
a  double  past.)  A  peine  eut-il  parle  que  les  applaudisse- 
ments  eclaterent,  'He  had  hardly  spoken  when  applause 
broke  forth.' 

Future  Simple  and  Future  Anterior. 

The  future  simple  offers  no  difficulty  ;  the  future  anterior 
is  employed  as  in  English,  although  the  French  use  it  much 
oftener ;  but  in  every  case  the  tense  might  be  used  in 
English.  Ex.:  Dites-le-moi,  quand  il  sera  arrive,  'Let  me 
know  when  he  has  come'  (i.  e.,  he  will  have  arrived). 

Si  in  French  admits  the  future  only  in  the  sense  of 
whether.  Je  ne  sais  s'il  viendra,  '  I  do  not  know  whether 
he  will  come.'  But  write:  S'il  vient  (not  s'il  viendra)  firai 

1  By  double  past  we  understand  an  action  which  was  performed,  or  a 
state  which  existed,  before  something  else  which  belongs  itself  to  the  past. 
Ex. :  He  had  arrived,  before  I  came. 


74  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

a  sa  rencontre,*  If  lie  comes  I  shall  go  to  meet  him.'1   (Other 
uses  of  si,  pages  68,  70,  and  conditional  below.) 

Notice  that  in  clauses  beginning  with  when  (quand, 
lorsque)  the  French  requires  two  futures.  Ex.:  Quand 
j'irai  a  New  York,je  vous  acheterai  une  montre,  *  When  I  go 
to  New  York,  I  shall  buy  you  a  watch.' 

c)   TENSES   OF  THE  CONDITIONAL  MODE. 

The  French  conditional  corresponds  in  the  main  with  the 
English.  But  the  student  should  take  great  care  to  notice 
that  the  conditional  or  potential  forms  should,  could,  might, 
etc.,  have  several  meanings  in  English,  and  that  it  is  only 
the  real  conditional  that  corresponds  with  the  French. 
Ex. :  I  could  not  do  it  (=  I  was  not  able)  is  not  a  con- 
ditional and  must  be  rendered :  Je  ne  pouvais  pas  (or  ne 
pus  pas)  le  faire. 

The  following  remark  is  also  of  great  practical  import. 
Si  (if) 1  never  allows  the  conditional  in  the  same  clause,  this 
mode  being  used  exclusively  in  the  principal  independent 
clause.  Ex. :  Si  je  voulais  vous  ne  sortiriez  pas  d'ici,  '  If  I 
would,  you  could  not  go  away  from  here.' 

The  perfect  subjunctive  may  be  used  instead  of  the  past 
conditional;  it  adds,  of  course,  an  element  of  uncertainty. 
Ex. :  II  eut  (or  aurait)  triomphe  s'il  eut  voulu,  '  He  would 
have  triumphed,  if  he  had  had  the  will.'  (See  also,  for  the 
use  of  the  imperfect,  page  70.) 

Certain  verbs  are  used  idiomatically  in  the  conditional  as 
follows  : 

1.  Vouloir  to  express  a  wish.     Ex. :  Je  voudrais  que  vous 
m'aidiez,  '  I  wish  you  would  help  me.7     (Je  veux  is  used 
only  as  an  equivalent  to  "it  is  my  will.") 

2.  Before   an  infinitive   devoir  'ought/  pouvoir  *  could, 
might/  and  ne  savoir  '  cannot/  also  in  the  past  conditional 
devoir   'should    have/    pouvoir   in    the    sense    of    'could.' 

1  Si  (whether)  admits  the  conditional. 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  75 

Ex. :  II  devrait  venir  me  voir,  'He  ought  to  come  and  see  me.' 
II  pourrait  m'assister,  'He  might  help  me.'  II  ne  saurait 
m'assister,  'He  cannot  help  me.7  II  aurait  du  m'assister, 
'He  should  have  helped  me.'  II  aurait pu  ra' assist er,  'He 
could  have  helped  me.7 

d)   USE   OF  THE   SUBJUNCTIVE. 

The  subjunctive  (or  conjunctive  as  it  is  sometimes  called) 
does  not  present  an  action  as  real,  but  as  a  mere  concep- 
tion of  the  mind,  that  is,  as  wished  for,  ordered  (the  com- 
mand may  or  may  not  be  obeyed),  feared  (fear  may 
not  be  realized),  possible,  that  is  as  likely  to  happen  or 
not  to  happen ;  for  as  soon  as  the  sentence  contains  suf- 
ficient reasons  for  the  realization  of  the  fact,  or  if  these 
reasons  are  implied,  the  verb  must  be  in  the  indicative  not 
the  subjunctive.  Special  rules  are,  generally  speaking, 
merely  consequences  of  this  fundamental  principle,  which 
explains  them  as  well  as  the  exceptions. 

IN  PRINCIPAL  OR  INDEPENDENT  CLAUSES  the  subjunctive 
occurs  only  in  exclamations,  in  expressions  of  wish  or 
desire,  etc.,  which  may  be  considered  elliptical.  Ex.:  Dieu 
le  veuille,  'May  God  so  will  it.7  Sauve  qui peut,  'Let  him 
save  himself  who  can.7  Vive  le  roi,  'Long  live  the  king.' 
Qu'ilparle,  'Let  him  speak.7  This  last  construction  is  used 
in  third  persons  singular  and  plural  as  a  kind  of  impera- 
tive. Ex. :  Quils  viennent,  '  Let  them  come.7 

REMARK. — 1.  Veuillez  is  used  independently  as  a  form 
of  politeness  before  an  infinitive ;  it  is  quite  generally  used 
by  the  French.  Ex. :  Veuillez  vous  asseoir,  'Pray,  take  a  seat.7 

2.  Que  je  sacke,  'As  far  as  I  know,7  is  a  parenthetical 
expression,  also  used  independently. 

IN  DEPENDENT  CLAUSES  the  indicative  is  generally  used 
only  when  the  fact  or  judgment  expressed  by  the  principal 
verb  is  an  affirmation. 


76 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


Example. 

INDICATIVE.                                              SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Affirmative.                      Negative. 

Interrogative. 

Je  crois 

Je  sais 
Je  suppose 
Je  me  doute 

Je  ne  crois  pas 
*g      Je  ne  pretends  pas 
ss!     Je  ne  suppose  pas 

gj 

Croyez-vous 
Supposez-vous 
Doutez-vous 

(I  suspect) 
Je  pretends 
Je  dis 

>  |.     Je  doute  * 
^     II  est  douteux  1 
P      II  n'est  pas  certain 

vienne. 

A 

Est-il  douteux 
Est-il  certain 
Etes-vous  etonne 

II  est  certain 

Je  suis  e'tonne'  1 

The  same  forms,  verbs  or  adjectives,  may  require  either 
indicative  or  subjunctive,  the  latter  if  there  is  doubt,  or  a 
possible  negation  in  the  mind  of  the  writer. 


Examples. 
INDICATIVE. 

II  est  vrai  qu'il  s'est  montri 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

S'il  est  vrai  qu'il  se  soit  montre 


courageux,  '  It  is  true  that  he  has 
shown  himself  courageous.' 

II  se  plaint  de  ce  qu'on  Va 
trompe,  '  He  complains  of  having 
been  deceived. ' 


Je  suppose  quHl  en  est  ainsi,  'I 
think  it  is  so. ' 

II  pretend  qu'on  obeira,  'He 
pretends  that  they  will  obey. ' 

Je  suis  d'avis  quHl  doit  partir, 
'  I  think  that  he  must  go. ' 


courageux,  "If  it  be  true  that,'  etc. 

II  se  plaint  qu'on  Vait  trompe. 
(This  sentence  is  translated  as  the 
one  opposite,  but  implies  that  the 
person  speaking  or  writing  is  in 
doubt  about  the  correctness  of 
the  statement.) 

Supposez  qu*il  en  soit  ainsi, 
'  Suppose  it  were  so. ' 

Je  pretends  que  Von  obeisse,  'I 
require  that  they  should  obey.' 

Je  suis  d'avis  qu'il  parte,  'I 
think  that  he  should  go. ' 


And   both   modes    are    found   alternating   in  the    same 
sentence.     Ex.:   Les   soldats   criaient    qu'on    les   mendt   au 

1  In  these  forms  the  negative  is  latent  in  the  thought ;  in  Je  doute  qu'il 
vienne, '  I  doubt  if  he  comes ' ;  Je  suis  etonne  qu'il  vienne, '  I  am  astonished 
that  he  should  come,'  the  negative  alternative  is  at  least  as  strong  as  the 
affirmative,  and  in  any  case  it  exists. 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  77 

combat;  quails  voulaient  venger  la  mort  de  leur  pere,  de  leur 
(jeneral;  qu'on  les  laissdt  faire;  quails  etaient  furieux,  'The 
soldiers  demanded  that  they  should  be  led  to  battle  ;  that 
they  wished  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  father,  their 
general ;  that  they  should  be  allowed  their  own  way ;  that 
they  were  furious.'  [MME  DE  SEVIGNE,  Letter  on  the 
Death  of  Turenne.~\  (Notice  that  the  verbs  affirming  a 
state  of  feeling  are  in  the  indicative,  while  those  express- 
ing claims  that  may  or  may  not  be  granted  are  in  the 
subjunctive.) 

RULE  I.  —  Use  the  subjunctive  after  the  conjunction 
que  and  a  verb  expressing  doubt,  fear,  etc.,  either  in  itself, 
or  on  account  of  the  negative  or  interrogative  turn  of  the 
sentence.  Notice  that  the  formal  negation  or  interrogation 
does  not  take  the  subjunctive  when  there  is  no  doubt  or 
uncertainty  in  the  speaker's  mind. 

Examples. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

II  ne  reflechit  pas  qu'il  se  perd,     On  ne  me  persuader  a  pas 
'He  does  not  realize  that  he  is    'They  will  not  persuade  me' 
destroying  himself '  (his  chances).    Ne  vousflgurez  pas 


qwil 
en 
soit 


'that 
it  is 

so.' 


Reflechit-il  qu'il  se  perd  ?  '  Does  '  Do  not  imagine ' 

he  realize  that  he  is  destroying  Croyez-vous 

his  chances  ?  '  'Do  you  believe ' 

Ne  croyez-vous  pas  qu'il  en  est  Pouvez-vous  esperer 

ainsi  ?  '  Don't  you  think  that  this  '  Can  you  hope ' 

is  so  ? '  Pouvez-vous  croire 

'  Can  you  believe ' 

There  are  also  certain  forms  which  are  affirmative  only 
in  appearance  and  which  in  reality  contain  a  doubt;  they 
take  the  subjunctive. 

J'aipeine  a  croire  *\ 

'  I  can  hardly  believe '  I  qu'il  en  soit  ainsi 

Je  ri*ai  guere  de  raison  pour  esperer  |    'that  it  is  so.' 
'  I  can  hardly  hope ' 


78  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

RULE  II.  —  Use  the  subjunctive  after  que  and  after 
verbs  or  adjectives  expressing  an  order,  a  restriction,  a 
desire,  an  emotion ;  they  refer  to%  things  which  are  uncer- 
tain, or  to  something  existing,  but  not  considered  as  such 
because  it  depends  on  a  word  expressing  feeling,  senti- 
ment, opinion.  Such  are,  for  example  : 

1.  The  verbs  vouloir,  ordonner,  defendre,  consentir,  per- 
mettre,  souffrir,  attendre,  meriter,  se  rejouir,  rouyir. 

2.  Most  impersonal  verbs,  as  il  convient,  il  faut,  il  im- 
porte,  il  est  temps,  c*est  assez,  il  est  juste,  il  est  possible. 

3.  The  adjectives  content,  mecontent,  satisfait,  heureux, 
malheureux,  desole,  honteux,  joyeux,  convenable,  possible,  etc. 

Notice,  though,  that  it  is  the  uncertainty  alone,  or  the 
subjectiveness,  which  demand  the  subjunctive.  Ex.:  II  est 
probable  qu'il  viendra,  'It  is  probable  that  he  will  come.' 
II  est  possible  qu'il  vienne,  'It  is  possible  that  he  may 
come.'  II  semble  qu'il  s'est  oublie,  'It  appears  that  he  has 
forgotten  himself.7  II  semble  qu'il  se  soit  oublie,  'He 
may  have  forgotten  himself,  so  it  seems.' 

RULE  III.  —  The  subjunctive  is  generally  used  after  the 
following  conjunctions,  locutions,  and  conjunctive  pronouns. 

En  attendant  que,1  De  crainte  que,    Pos£  que,  Quoique, 

A  condition  que,     De  peur  que,       Pour  que,  Sans  que, 

A  moms  que,          Encore  que,         Pourvu  que,  Si  non  que, 

Afin  que,                 Jusqu'a  ce  que,   Quel  que,  Si  pen  que, 

Au  cas  que,             Loin  que,              Quelque  .  .  .  que   Si  .  .  .  que  (= 

En  cas  que,             Malgre  que,          Qui  que,  quelque  .  .  .  que), 

Avant  que,              Non  que,     -         Quoi  que,  Si  tant  est  que, 

Bien  que,                Non  pas  que,  Soit  que, 

.  Ce  ri>est  pas  que,     Pour  peu  que,  Suppose  que,  etc. 
Nonobstant  que, 

EULE  IV.  —  After  the  following  locutions  1  use  the  in- 

De  maniere  que,         Jusqu'a  ce  que,  Si  ce  n'est  que, 

De  sorte  que,  En  sorte  que,  Tellement  que,  tel  (adj.)  que, 

1  See  the  vocabulary  for  the  meaning  of  these  words. 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VEKB.  79 

dicative  to  express  something  positive  or  an  accomplished 
fact  (mostly  past),  or  the  subjunctive  to  express  a  doubt, 
which  exists  generally  in  reference  to  the  future.  Ex. :  II 
a  fait  en  sorte  qu'on  a  ete  content  de  lui,  '  He  has  acted  so  as 
to  satisfy  them '  (i.  e.,  so  that  one  has  been  satisfied  —  a 
fact).  Je  ferai  en  sorte  que  vous  soyez  content  de  moi,  '  I 
shall  act  so  as  to  satisfy  you'  (possibly  I  may  not  succeed). 

RULE  V.  —  Use  the  subjunctive  after  relative  pronouns 
when  the  verb  expresses  doubt,  fear,  wish,  tendency,  etc.,  and 
the  indicative,  for  a  perception  (i.  e.,  whatever  is  perceived 
by  the  senses),  or  an  affirmation.  Ex. :  Indiquez  moi  un  en- 
droit  ouje  puisse  me  rejwser,  '  Show  me  a  place  where  I  can 
rest.'  Je  connais  un  endroit  ou  je  puis  me  reposer,  '  I  know 
a  place  where  I  can  rest.'  Of  course,  here  also  negative  or 
interrogative  forms  usually  demand  the  subjunctive. 

RULE  VI.  —  After  superlatives  followed  by  a  relative 
pronoun,  and  similar  locutions  as  le  seul  qui,  le  premier 
qui,  le  dernier  qui,  use  generally  the  subjunctive,  because  a 
judgment  is  considered  as  subject  to  doubt  or  contestation, 
but  use  the  indicative  for  expressing  a  fact. 

Examples. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

C'est  peut-etre  la  seule  chose  Trajan,  le  prince  le  plus  accom- 

que  V argent  seul  ne  peut pas  faire,  plis  dont  Vhistoire  ait  jamais 
'It  is  perhaps  the  only  thing  that  parle,  'Trajan,  the  most  accom- 
rnoney  alone  cannot  do. '  [M ON-  plished  prince  ever  mentioned  in 
TESQUIEU.  ]  history. '  (This  might  be  denied. ) 

[MONTESQUIEU.  ] 

CONCORDANCE   OF  TENSES. 

Indicative. 

The  following  remark  only  seems  necessary  : 
After  verbs  like  dire,  croire,  affirmer,  followed  by  another 
verb  and  the  conjunction  que,  the  second  verb  must  be  in 


80  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

the  imperfect  or  the  pluperfect,  if  its  action  is  also  past, 
but  in  the  present  indicative  if  its  action  extends  to  the 
present,  or  is  equally  true  at  all  times.  Ex. :  On  m'affir- 
mait  que  vous  vous  etiez  enferme  pour  travailler,  '  I  was  told 
that  you  had  locked  yourself  up  in  order  to  work.'  J'affir- 
mais  que  la  France  .est  riche,  '  I  said  that  France  was 
wealthy.' 

Indicative  and  Subjunctive. 

If  the  verb  of  the  principal  clause  is  in  the  present  or 
future  indicative,  the  second  verb  must  be  in  the  present 
subjunctive  to  express  a  present  or  future  action.  Ex.: 
Croyez-vous  que  cela  soit  vrai  ?  '  Do  you  believe  it  is  true  ? ' 
Croyez-vous  qu'il  vienne?  'Do  you  believe  that  he  will 
come  ? ;  and  in  the  perfect  subjunctive  to  express  the  past 
action.  Croyez-vous  qu'il  ait  reussi  ?  '  Do  you  think  he  has 
succeeded  ? ' 

EXCEPTION.  — Whenever  the  second  verb  is  followed  by 
a  conditional  clause  (si  with  the  imp.  ind.)  use  the  imperfect 
or  pluperfect  subjunctive  instead  of  the  present  or  perfect. 
Ex. :  Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  fut  venu,  si  vous  ne  lui  aviez  parle, 
'I  do  not  believe  he  would  have  come,  if  you  had  not 
spoken  to  him.' 

If  the  verb  of  the  principal  clause  is  in  a  past  tense  or 
in  the  conditional,  write  the  dependent  verb  in  the  imperfect 
subjunctive  to  express  a  present  or  a  future,  and  in  the 
pluperfect  to  express  a  past  action.  Ex. :  Je  craignais  que 
vous  ne  reussissiez  pas,  'I  was  afraid  you  would  not  suc- 
ceed.' Je  craignais  que  vous  n'eussiez  pas  reussi,  *I  was 
afraid  that  you  would  not  have  succeeded.' 

EXCEPTION.  —  The  present  conditional  is  often  followed 
by  the  present  or  perfect  subjunctive,  instead  of  the  imper- 
fect or  pluperfect  subjunctive.  Ex.  :  Je  voudrais  qu'il 
m'ecoute  (or  m'ecoutdt),  'I  wish  he  would  listen  to  me.' 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  81 

e)   USE   OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

The  infinitive  in  French  is  the  verbal  noun.  Students 
should  be  careful  not  to  use  the  present  participle  in  ant 
as  a  noun  with  the  single  exception  of  the  construction 
with  en.  Ex. :  En  ehantant,  '  While  singing.'  The  French 
infinitive  is  used  as  subject,  direct  object,  and  indirect 
object  with  or  without  a  preposition.1 

The  infinitive  without  a  preposition  is  used  : 

a)  As  a  subject  in  its  place  at  the  beginning  of  the 
clause  2  or  as  a  predicate  after  c'est,  after  verbs  like  etre 
cense  *  to  be  accounted,  reputed/   etre  suppose  '  to  be  sup- 
posed/ and  after  the  impersonate  sembler  '  to  seem/  paraitre 
'to   appear.'3      Ex.:  Attendre  est  impossible,   ayir  ne  Vest 
pas  moins,    'To  wait   is   impossible,   to  act  not  less   so.' 
[DELAVIGNE.]      Car  te  montrer  c'est  plaire,  et  te  voir  c'est 
tf  aimer,  '  For  to  show  thyself  is  to  please,  to  see  thee  is  to 
love  thee.'     [DELILLE.] 

b)  As  direct  object  after  verbs  expressing  operations  of 
the  senses,  of  hearing,  seeing,  speaking,  saying,  thinking, 
imagining,  and  after  many  verbs  expressing  a  will,  a  wish, 
or  a  hope;  after  the  verbs  faire  'to  do/  laisser  'to  allow/ 
devoir  'to  owe/  pouvoir  'to  be  able/  oser  'to  dare/  daigner 
'to  deign/  faillir  'to  fail,  to  miss/  manquer  'to  fail,  to 
lack/  and  after  the  expressions  void  'here  is/  voila  'there 
is';  after  verbs  of  motion  like  oiler  'to  go/  venir  'to  come/ 
the  past  tenses  of  etre  'to  be.'     Ex.:  II  s'imagine  etre  un 

1  See  the  alphabetical  list^of  infinitive  constructions,  page  113. 

2  For  the  use  of  de  with  the  infinitive-subject  see  page  82,  a. 

3  After  the  impersonals  the  conjunction  que  with  the  indicative  or  the 
subjunctive  is  also  used.    Ex. :  H  parait  aimer  sa  mere  or  H  parait  qu'il 
aime  sa  mere,  'He  appears  to  love  his  mother.'    The  same  construction  is 
found  after  the  cases  enumerated  in  b.    Ex. :   H  s' imagine  qu'il  est  un 
grand  homme.    Students,  however,  should  learn  to  make  frequent  use  of 
the  infinitive  constructions,  which  are  simple,  while  a  clause  with  que  often 
uselessly  complicates  the  sentence, 


82  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

grand  homme,  'He  fancies  himself  to  be  a  great  man.7  II 
veut  me  faire  croire  qu'il  mfaime,  'He  tries  to  make  me 
believe  that  he  loves  nie.'  Je  fus  le  voir,  'I  went  to 
see  him.' 

c)  As  exclamations  or  in  elliptical  and  in  indirect  ques- 
tions. Ex. :  Plutot  mourir,  '  Better  die  ! '  Obeir  !  on  n' en- 
tend  que  ce  mot !  '  Obey  !  that  is  the  only  word  one  hears  ! ' 
Que  faire  ?  '  What  is  to  be  done  ? '  Je  ne  sais  plus  que 
faire,  '  I  do  not  any  longer  know  what  to  do.' 

The  infinitive  with  the  preposition  *de'  is  used  : 

a)  As  logical  subject  of  a  sentence,  when  the  apparent 
subject  is  il  or  ce  often  followed  by  que.     Ex. :   C'est  bien 
mal  d'ejfrayer  ainsi  ses  amis,  '  It  is  very  wrong  to  frighten 
one's  friends  thus.'  [DuMAs.]     11  me  restait  d'etre  oublie  de 
vous,  '  That  was  yet  in  store  for  "me,  to  be  forgotten  by  you.' 
[RACINE.]      C'est  une  maladie  d' esprit  que  de  souhaiter  des 
choses  impossibles,  '  To  wish  for  the  impossible  is  a  disease 
of  the  mind.'     When  the  verb  is  construed  with  a,  the  latter 
preposition  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  de.     Ex. :   C"  est  a 
moi  a parler  or  de  parler,  'It  is  for  me  to  speak'  (i.  e.,  it 
is  my  turn  to  speak).     De  is  also  used  when  the  subject  is 
inverted.     (See  page  81,  a.)     Le  defaut  de  FUchier  est  de 
toujours  ecrire  et  de  ne  jamais  parler,  '  Flechier's  fault  is  to 
write  always,  and  never  to  speak.' 

b)  After  another  infinitive  and  que  with  an  idea  of  com- 
parison,  and   after  expressions  like    valoir   mieux  'to   be 
better,  preferable,'  aimer  mieux  '  to  like  better,  to  prefer,' 
a  mains  que  '  unless,'  faire  plus  que  'fo  do  more  than,'  pht- 
tot  que  '  rather  than.'     Ex. :  J'aimerais  mieux  mourir  que 
de  faire  une  si  mauvaise  action,  '  I  Vould  rather  die  than 
do  such  a  wickdd  deed.' 

c)  As  direct  object  of  most  verbs  (excepting  those  men- 
tioned page  81,  b  and  84,  c.      Ex.:  J'evite  d'etre  long  et 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  83 

je   deviens   obscur,    'I    avoid   being   lengthy,  and   become 
obscure.'  [BOILEAU.] 

d)  To  mark  all  the  different  values  of  the  preposition 
de :  1 .    After  nouns  as  possessives,  etc.     Ex. :  Le  secret  de 
plaire,  *  The  secret  of  pleasing.'    2.    After  adjectives.    Ex.: 
Je  suis  sur  de  le  revoir,  '  I  am  sure  of  seeing  him  again.7 
3.    After  verbs.     Ex. :  Bailly  venait  de  renoncer  a  la  mairie, 
' Bailly  had  just  given  up  the  mayoralty '  (i.  e.,  was  coming 
from  giving  up).   [MiGNET,]     II  faut  rougir  de  commettre 
des  f antes  et  non  de  les  avouer,  '  One  should  blush  to  com- 
mit errors  and  not  to  confess  them.'  [VOLTAIRE.]    4.  After 
many  particles  such  &s  pres  de  'near  to/  loin  de  'far  from/ 
afin  de  '  so  that/  etc.     Ex. :  Hors  de  le  battre,  il  ne  pouvait 
le  traiter  plus  mal,  *  Unless  he  had  beaten  him,  he  could 
not  have  treated  him  worse.' 

e)  As  the   so-called  historical  infinitive,  for  emphasis, 
Ex.:     Un  etranger  m'a  jete  ce  secret  a  la  face,  et  chaque 
electeur  alors  de  dire :   C'est  vrai,  '  A  stranger  insultingly 
told  the  secret  in  my  presence,  and  all  the  voters  then  ex- 
claimed :  "It  is  true."' 

The  infinitive  is  used  with  a  : 

a)  To  mark  a  tendency,  a  direction  either  real  or  figura- 
tive after  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  even  a  noun.     Ex.:  Us 
m?  exhorterent  a  prier  Dieu,  '  They  exhorted  me  to  pray  to 
God.'     Je  suis  pret  a  vous  servir,  '  I  am  ready  to  serve  you.' 
Un  pretexte  a  se  plaindre  se  trouve  quand  on  veut,  '  A  pre- 
text to  complain  can  be  found  whenever  one  wishes.' 

b)  After  verbs  as  an  answer  to  the  question  how  (com- 
ment) ;  and  generally  as  a  descriptive.     Ex. :   Tu  vas  passer 
encore  line  nuit  a  travailler,  '  You  are  again   going  to  spend 
the  night  in  working.'      Un  beau  spectacle  a  ravir  la  pensee, 
'  A  beautiful  sight  delightful  to  tho   thought '  (such  as  to 
delight).      Cela  n'est  pas  a  dedaigner,  '  That  is  not  to  be 


84  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

disdained'  (such  as  to  "be  disdained).  C'est  difficile  a  ex- 
pliquer,  'It  is  hard  to  explain/  This  occurs  even  abso- 
lutely at  the  beginning  of  a  clause.  A  vous  entendre,  on 
croirait  que  la  fin  du  monde  approche,  '  To  hear  you,  one 
might  believe  that  the  end  of  the  world  is  near.7 

c)  After  the  following  transitive  verbs  to  express  the 
object  of  the  activity:  avoir,  donner,  chercher,  trouver,  en- 
seigner,    montrer,    apprendre,    oublier,   prej^arer,    demander, 
aimer,  commencer,  recommencer,  continuer,  finir.     Ex.:  J'ai 
a  faire  une  visite,  '  I  must  make  a  call.7 

d)  As  part  of  the  expressions  quitte  a  '  quite  clear,'  sauf 
a  '  except/  quand  a  '  as  for/  de  maniere  a  '  so  as  to/  jusqu'a 
*  until.7     Ex.:  II  parle  de  maniere,  a  convaincre,  'He  speaks 
so  as  to  carry  conviction.7 

A  number  of  verbs  admit  an  infinitive  with  either  a  or 
de  or  without  a  preposition.  Ex. :  Aimer ;  il  aime  venir,  a 
venir,  or  de  venir,  '  He  likes  to  come.7  (See  the  alphabetical 
table,  page  113.) 

The  other  prepositions  offer  little  difficulty.  Some  in 
more  frequent  use  are  par,  pour,  sans,  apres. 

Par  is  used  after  verbs  of  beginning  and  ending.  Ex. : 
II  commence  par  interesser  et  finlt  par  ennuyer,  '  He  begins 
by  interesting  one  and  ends  by  wearying.7 

Pour  is  used  in  the  sense  of  in  order  to  or  because  of. 
Ex. :  II  le  dit  pour  vous  plaire,  '  He  says  it  to  please  you.7 
II  souffre  pour  avoir  ete  imprudent,  '  He  suffers  for  having 
been  imprudent.7 

Sans  'without7  is  frequently  used.  Ex.:  II  eut  voulu 
attaquer  sans  nuire,  se  defendre  sans  offenser,  '  He  would 
have  desired  to  attack  without  doing  injury,  and  to  defend 
himself  without  giving  offense.7  [FLECHIER.] 

Apres  is  often  found  with  the  compound  infinitive.  Ex.  : 
Apres  avoir  dit  ce  qu'il  voulait  dire,  '  After  having  said  what 
he  wished,7  With  the  present  infinitive,  it  is  used  in  the 


SYNTAX    OF    THE    VERB.  85 

locutions  apres  boire  *  after  drinking/  apres  diner,  apres 
souper,  apres  dejeuner,  '  after  dinner,  supper,  breakfast/  in 
which  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a  noun. 

USE   OF  REFLEXIVE  VERBS. 

Reflexive  verbs  are  of  a  much  more  frequent  use  in 
French  than  in  English ;  it  might  be  better  to  call  them 
pronominal  verbs,  since  they  are  not  always  reflexive. 
They  are  used  : 

1.  As  reflexives  proper,  which  means  that  the  action 
starts  from  the  subject  and  returns  to  the  same.     Ex.:  II 
s'aime,  'He  loves  himself/ 

2.  With  a  mutual  meaning  ;  this  can  occur  only  in  the 
plural  since  at  least  two  persons,  animals,  or  things  are 
involved.     Ex. :  Nous  nous  aimons  may  mean  either  we  love 
ourselves  or  we  love  each  other.     In  case  of  ambiguity,  Vun 
Vautre  is  often  added.     Ex. :  Aimez-vous  les  uns  les  autres, 
'  Love  each  other.' 

3.  To  take  the  place   of   the   passive    construction   in 
English.     Ex.:   Cela  se  fait,  'It  is  done.'     II  se  dit,  'It  is 
said !  (i.  e.,  people  say).     II  ne  se  parlera  plus  de  lid,  'He 
will  no  longer  be  spoken  of.'     La  porte  se  referme,  '  The 
door  is  closed  again.' 

REMARK.  —  1.  The  auxiliary  etre  in  reflexive  verbs  is 
treated  as  the  equivalent  of  avoir  ;  for  instance  je  me  suis 
promene  is  in  syntax  the  equivalent  of  fai  promene  moi, 
'  I  have  walked  myself  about/  myself  (me)  being  the  direct 
object.  Notice  that  the  auxiliary  avoir  must  never  be  used 
with  a  reflexive  verb. 

2.  The  objective  pronoun  may  be  either  the  direct  or 
the  indirect  object  ;  with  certain  reflexive  verbs  it  is 
sometimes  the  one,  sometimes  the  other.  Ex. :  S'attacher 
quelqu'un  (i.  e.,  to  attach  some  one  to  one's  self)  =  ' To  gain 
somebody's  friendship/  etc,  S'attacher  a  yuelyu'un,  'To 


86  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

become  attached  to  some  one.'  Of  course  with  neuter  verbs 
used  reflexively  the  pronoun  is  indirect  object ;  except 
with  the  following  : 

Aller  'to  go,'  s'en  aller  'to  go  away' ;  Us  s'en  sont  alles. 

Venir,  revenir  'to  come,  to  come  back,'  s'en  venir,  s'en  revenir 
(same  meaning);  Us  s'en  sont  venus,  etc. 

Prevaloir  'to  prevail,'  se  prevaloir  'to  take  advantage  of ' ;  il  se  sont 
prevalus. 

Mourir  'to  die,'  se  mourir  'to  be  dying' ;  only  used  in  the  pres.  hid., 
je  me  meurs,  etc. 

3.  Students  should  notice  that  the  meaning  of  a  verb 
used  reflexively  often  differs  from  that  of  the  simple  form. 
Ex.:  Plaindre  'to  pity/  se plaindre  'to  complain.' 

USE   OF  THE  PASSIVE   VOICE. 

Although  the  passive  voice  may  be  correctly  used  in 
French,  it  will  be  best  for  students  to  turn  most  English 
passives  into  French  either  by  the  active  voice,  the  re- 
flexive, or  indefinite  forms.  Ex.:  II  etait  aime  des  dieux 
et  des  kommes,  '  He  was  beloved  by  gods  and  men '  —  is 
undoubtedly  good  French,  but  in  sentences  like  '/  am  told ' 
the  French  is  On  me  dit,  etc.;  *It  is  saidj  etc.,  On  dit,  etc., 
II  se  dit,  etc.  On  croit  qu'il  est  sain  et  sauf,  '  He  is  thought 
to  be  safe  and  sound.' 

The  name  of  the  agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  preceded 
by  the  prepositions  de  or  par.  Ex. :  C'est  par  son  courage 
que  la  paix  est  fait  e,  'It  is  through  his  courage  that  peace 
is  made.' 

REMARK.  —  De  was  formerly  the  only  preposition  used 
after  passives,  the  agent  being  considered  as  the  source, 
the  origin  of  the  action ;  but  later  the  instrumentality 
being  taken  into  account,  par  was  also  employed.  And  to- 
day the  latter  is  to  be  preferred  after  all  passives  marking 
an  instantaneous  action,  or  one  of  limited  duration,  whether 


PARTICIPLES.  87 

the  object  be  that  of  a  person  or  of  a  thing.  Ex. :  II  etait 
aime  de  Dieu  et  des  hommes,  'He  was  loved  by  G-od  and 
by  men.'  Par  mes  ordres  trompeurs  tout  le  peuple  excite, 
'  The  whole  people  aroused  by  my  deceptive  commands.' 
[RACINE.] 

The  passive  voice  is  used  : 

1.  For  the  sake  of  calling  especial  attention  to  the  object, 
which  in  the  passive  form  becomes  the  subject.     Ex.:  Le 
paratonnerre  fut  invente  par  Franklin,  '  The  lightning-rod 
was  invented  by  Franklin.7     Ces  profondes  solitudes  n'etaient 
point  troublees  par  la  presence  de  Vhomme,    'This   perfect 
solitude  was  not  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  man.' 

2.  When  the  active  agent  is  not  considered  at  all.     Ex. : 
Cette  maison  est  bdtie  en  pierres,  '  That  house  is  built  of 
stone.'     Le  voleur  est  pris,  '  The  thief  is  caught.' 


CHAPTER   VII. 

PARTICIPLES. 

THE  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE. 

The  form  in  ant  is  either  an  adjective,  in  which  case  it 
qualifies  a  noun  and  agrees  with  it,  or  an  invariable  verbal 
form  used  to  denote  an  action  or  a  condition. 

The  participle  in  ant  is  a  verbal  form  and  invariable  : 

1.  When  it  has  a  direct  object.     Ex.:  J'ai  vu  cette  mere 
caressant  son  enfant,  '  I  have  seen  that  mother  caressing 
her  child.' 

2.  When  it  is  preceded  by  the  preposition  en.     In  this 
case  it  is  the  equivalent  of  the  English  gerundial  participle 
and  expresses  simultaneity,  cause,  means,  manner,  or  sup- 
position.    As  a  rule  this  participle  ought  to  refer  to  the 
subject  of  the  sentence,  but,  when  the  relation  is  evident 
or  the  meaning  perfectly  plain,  it  refers  occasionally  to 
objects  either  direct  or  indirect  and  is  even  found  used 


88  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

absolutely.  Ex. :  Eeference  to  subject.  En  r entrant  chez 
moi,  fai  trouve  mon  frere,  'Coming  home  I  found  my 
brother.'  Eeference  to  direct  object.  Songez-vous  qu'en 
naissant  mes  bras  vous  ont  recue  ?  '  Do  you  consider  that  my 
arms  received  you  when  you  were  born?'  [EACINE.] 
Eeference  to  an  indetermined  being  (absolute  use).  Lap- 
petit  vient  en  mangeant,  '  Appetite  comes  with  Beating.' 
La  fortune  vient  en  dormant,  '  Fortune  comes  to  one  while 
he  is  sleeping.' 

EEMARK.  —  Notice  that  the  progressive  conjugation  in 
English  must  be  translated  in  French  by  the  common  form. 
Ex.:  I  am  doing  =  Je  fais  (not  je  suis  faisant).  But  with 
the  verb  alter  expressing  progress  in  action  either  the  pres. 
part,  alone  or  the  construction  with  en  is  used.  Ex. :  Le 
mal  va  augmentant  (or  en  augmentanf)  de  jour  en  jour,  '  The 
evil  is  increasing  day  by  day.' 

THE   PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

When  the  past  participle  is  used  without  auxiliary  or 
with  etre,  it  is  equivalent  to  an  adjective  and  agrees  as 
such  with  its  noun.  (This  rule  does  not  apply  to  the 
participle  in  the  reflexive  conjugations.)  Ex. :  J'ai  vu  des 
arbres  abattus,  'I  have  seen  trees  felled'  Cette  mere  est 
aimee,  '  This  mother  is  beloved.' 

EXCEPTION.  —  The  following  participles**-  remain  invari- 
able if  they  precede  their  noun  :2  approuve  '  approved/ 
attendu  'on  account  of/  ci-inclus  'herein  enclosed/  ci-joint 
'herewith/  excepte  'excepted/  non-compris  'not  included/ 
passe  '  except,  after/  suppose  '  supposing/  vu  '  seeing.'  Ex. : 
Excepte  les  enfants,  or  Les  enfants  exceptes,  'Except  the 
children/  or  'The  children  excepted.' 

1  Some  grammarians  call  these  participles  prepositions  when  they  pre- 
cede a  noun. 

2 This  is  also  true  of  the  adjectives  nu  and  demi,  Ci-inclus  and  ci-joint  may 
also  be  called  adjectives,  See  page  13, 


PARTICIPLES.  89 

When  the  past  participle  is  accompanied  by  the  aux- 
iliary avoir,  and  in  the  conjugation  of  reflexive  verbs,  it 
agrees  with  the  direct  object,  if  that  object  precedes  ;  if 
there  is  no  direct  object,  or  if  it  follows  the  participle  the 
the  latter  is  invariable.  Ex. :  Je  vous  ai  envoiji:  des  livres, 
'I  have  sent  you  some  books.'  Les  livres  qne  je  vous  ai 
envoy&S)  'The  books  which  I  have  sent  you.' 

There  are  properly  no  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  but  as  the 
application  is  sometimes  difficult,  the  following  remarks 
may  be  useful  : 

1.  Neuter  and  impersonal  verbs   cannot  have  a  direct 
object  and  their  past  part,  remains  invariable  when  conju- 
gated with  avoir.    Notice  the  construction  in  the  examples. 
Ex. :  La  peine  qu'il  a  fallu  se  donner,  '  The  trouble  which 
it  was  necessary  for  him  to  take.'     Les  lonr/s  jours  qu'il  a 
vecu,    'The    many   years    (during)    which   he    lived.      Les 
grandes  chaleurs  qu'il  a  fait,  'The   great  heat  which  we 
have  had.'     (II  fait  chaud,  il  a  fait  de  la  chaleur,  etc.,  are 
impersonals.) 

2.  Certain  verbs    are    sometimes   transitive,  sometimes 
neuter;  notice  especially  the  participles  coute  'cost/  pese 
'weighed,'  valu  'worth,'  couru,  'run.' 

Examples. 

NEUTER.  TRANSITIVE. 

Les  trois  heures  que  ce  cheval  a  Les  dangers  que   nous    avons 

couru,  'The  three  hours  (during)        courus,  'The  dangers  which  we 
which  this  horse  has  been  run-        have  undergone.' 
ning.' 

3.  When  the  past  participle  of   a  compound  tense  is 
followed  by  an  infinitive   and  the  object  precedes  them 
both,  we  must  consider  to  which  one  the  object  belongs. 
Ex.:  La  personne  que  fai  entendue  chanter,  'The  person  1 
heard  singing.'     (The  object  belongs  to  the  compound  tense 
and  consequently  the  part,  is  variable.)     La  romance  qite 


90  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

fai  entendu  chanter,  '  The  song  which  I  heard  sung.'  (The 
object  belongs  to  the  infinitive;  the  participle  having  the 
infinitive  clause  for  object  is  invariable.) 

The  participle  fait  in  connection  with  an  infinitive  forms 
one  locution  with  the  verb  and  is  always  invariable.  Ex. : 
Je  les  ai  fait  tomber,  'I  made  them  fall.7 

4.  After  certain  participles  a  verb  may  be  understood, 
and  the   object  belong  to  the  latter,  in  which  case  the 
participle  remains  invariable.      Ex.:  Je  lui  ai  rendu  tous 
les  services  que  fai  pu,   'I   have    rendered   him   all   the 
services  which  I  could'  (render). 

5.  The  participle  is  invariable  when  followed  by  que  or 
by  an  infinitive  clause,  because  this  following  clause  is  the 
object  of  the  compound  tense,  of  which  the  participle  is 
apart.     Ex.:  Les  fautes  que  fai  suppose  qu'il  ferait,  'The 
mistakes  which  I  thought  he  would  make.'     (Qu'il  ferait 
is  the  object ;  que  is  the  object  of  ferait.     Les  sommes  que 
fai  suppose  lui   etre  dues,  'The   sums  which  I  supposed 
were  due  to  him.' 

6.  Le  is  often  a  neuter  with  the  meaning  of  it.1    Ex. :  La 
famine  arriva  comme  Joseph  Vavait  predit,  'The  famine 
occurred  as  Joseph  had  predicted'  (it  =  that  it  would  occur). 

En  partitive  and  object  leaves  the  participle  invariable 
except  when  combien?  'how  m&ny?'  plus,  or  moins  is  found 
in  the  same  clause.  Ex. :  Vous  avez  lu  plus  de  livres  que 
je  n'en  ai  lu,  'You  have  read  more  books  than  I'  (have 
read).  (The  French  expression  might  be  :  que  moi.)  Plus 
on  vous  a  donne  de  Livres,  plus  vous  en  avez  IKS,  '  The  more 
books  they  gave  you,  the  more  you  read.'  Combien  en  ai-je 
vus  mourir  !  '  How  many  men  I  have  seen  dying  ! ' 

7.  For  collectives  the  rule  is  the  same  as  for  adjectives; 
the  participle  agrees,  according  to  the  meaning,  either  with 
the   collective   or   the    noun    following.      Ex. :    La   foule 

1  See  page  19. 


ADVERBS.  91 

d'kommes  quefaie  vue,  'The  crowd  of  men  I  have  seen';  or 
La  foule  des  hommes  quefai  vus,*T*he  great  number  of  men 
whom  I  have  seen.'  La  plupart  des  and  bien  des,  however, 
always  require  the  plural. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  are  used  in  French  as  in  English  with  verbs, 
adjectives,  or  with  other  adverbs. 

Many  French  adjectives  can  be  changed  into  adverbs 
by  adding  ment  to  the  masculine  form  if  it  ends  in  a 
vowel.  Ex.:  Sage  'wise/  sagement  ' wisely ';  vrai  'true/ 
vraiment  '  truly 7 ;  or  to  the  feminine  if  the  masc.  ends  in 
a  consonant.  Ex.:  Franc,  fern,  franche  'frank/  franche- 
ment  '  frankly ' ;  bel  (beau)  fern,  belle  '  handsome/  bellement 
'gently7;  fol  (fou)  fem.folle  ' foolish/  follement  'foolishly.' 

Adverbs  which  admit  of  comparison  are  compared  like 
adjectives  by  means  of  aussi  .  .  .  que,  plus  .  .  .  que, 
moins  .  .  .  que,  to  mark  equality,  superiority,  or  inferiority. 

Only  the  following  are  irregular. 

EQUALITY.  SUPERIORITY.      INFERIORITY. 

Bien  (well),  aussi  bien,  mieux,  moins  bien, 

Mai  (badly),  aussi  mal,  pis  or  plus  mal,    moins  mal, 

Beaucoup(mu.ch),  autant,  plus,  moins, 

Peu  (little),  autant,  moins, 

Superlatives  are  formed  with  le  plus  or  le  moins  and  for 
the  irregular  four  they  are  le  mieux,  le  pis,  le  plus,  le  moins. 

AFFIRMATIVES  AND  NEGATIVES. 

For  negative  forms  used  with  verbs,  see  page  76.  For 
the  negative  without  verbs  the  French  form  is  non  '  no/  or 
emphatically  non  pas,  non  point. 

Pas  is  used  in  elliptical  sentences  (ne  being  understood) 
in  connection  with  another  word,  point  by  itself.  Ex. :  Avez- 


92  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

vous  des  livres?  Pas  un,  Have  you  any  books  ?  Not  one/ 
T suis-je?  Point,  'Am  I  right?  Not  at  all.'  Pas  du  tout, 
point  du  tout  are  more  emphatic. 

Non  and  oui  also  are  sometimes  preceded  by  que.  Ex. : 
Oh  !  que  oui,  Oh  !  que  non,  '  Oh  yes  !  Oh  no  ! 7 

Oui  is  the  usual  affirmative  answer  to  a  question ;  si,  the 
corrective  answer  to  a  negative  question.  Ex. :  Vous  n'avez 
pas  ete  a  Paris,  n'est-ce  pas  ?  '  You  have  not  been  in  Paris, 
have  you?'  Si,fy  ai  ete,  'Yes,  I  have.' 

Oui,  non,  and  si  are  sometimes  preceded  by  mais  which 
adds  a  slight  emphasis. 

"Ne  "  in  Sentences  that  are  not  Negative. 

There  are  several  cases  in  which  the  usage  of  ne  is  some- 
what doubtful;  yet  the  practice  of  the  best  writers  appears 
to  sanction  the  following  rules. 

Ne  .  .  .  que  is  to  be  translated  by  but,  only,  or  their 
equivalents.  Ex.:  Je  ne  vois  que  trois  invites,  'I  see  but 
three  guests.7  II  n'y  a  que  lid  pour  faire  cela,  '  He  is  the 
only  one  who  could  (or  would)  do  that.7 

Ne  after  comparatives.  1.  After  a  comparative  of 
inequality  (jplus,  moins  .  .  .  que,  etc.)  use  ne  in  the  second 
term  if  the  first  one  is  affirmative.  Ex. :  II  est  plus  prudent 
que  vous  ne  Vetes,  'He  is  more  prudent  than  you  are.7 
(The  French  conception  is  :  he  is  prudent,  you  are  not.) 

2.  After  a  comparative  of  inequality  which  is  both 
interrogative  and  negative.  Ex. :  N'est-il  pas  plus  prudent 
que  vous  ne  Vetes?  'Is  he  not  more  prudent  than  you  are  ?7 
(The  French  conception  is  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
sentence:  you  are  not  prudent.) 

Do  not  use  ne  in  the  second  member  in  other  cases. 
Say:  II  n'est  pas  plus  prudent  que  vous  Vetes;  est-il  plus 
prudent  que  vous  Vetes  ?  il  est  aussi  prudent  que  vous  Vetes. 


ADVERBS.  93 

"Ne"  After  Verbs  in  the  Sense  of  "Lest"  or  Without 
English  Equivalent. 

Verbs  expressing  fear,  like  craindre,  avoir  peur,  appre- 
hender,  etc.,  require  ne  after  them:  1.  In  an  affirmative 
sentence.  Ex. :  J'ai  peur  qu'il  ne  me  poursuive,  '  I  fear  he 
will  pursue  me.'  2.  In  a  negative  interrogative  clause. 
Ex. :  Ne  craignez-vous  pas  qu'il  ne  vous  persecute  ?  'Are  you 
not  afraid  that  he  will  persecute  you  ? ' 

Douter  'to  doubt'  requires  ne  after  it:  1.  In  a  negative 
clause.  Ex.:  Je  ne  doute  pas  qu'il  ne  vienne,  'I  do  not 
doubt  that  he  will  come.7  2.  In  any  question  (not  nega- 
tive). Ex.:  Doutez-vous  qu'il  ne  vienne?  'Are  you  in  doubt 
that  he  will  come  ?'  or  '  Do  you  doubt  that  he  will  come  ? ' 

After  nier  'to  deny/"  disconvenir  'to  deny/  desesperer  'to 
despair/  il  s'en  faut  'it  is  far  from/  empecher  'to  prevent/ 
some  writers  use  ne,  others  do  not.  Ex. :  Je  nie  qu'il  I' ait 
fait  or  qu'il  ne  I' ait  fait,  'I  deny  that  he  has  done  it.' 

The  best  usage  does  not  admit  of  ne  after  avant  que  and 
sans  que. 

Use  ne  after  depuis  .  .  .  que  '  since '  or  que  in  the  same 
sense  when  the  verb  is  in  a  compound  tense.  It  is  then 
translated  since.  Ex.:  II  y  a  longtemps  qu'il  n'est  venu, 
'It  is  a  long  time  since  he  came ' ;  but  write  II  y  a  trois 
mois  qu'il  vint  me  voir,  'He  came  to  see  me  three  months 
ago.' 

Use  ne  after  a  mains  que  '  unless '  (or  que  with  the  same 
meaning) ;  it  has  no  literal  rendering  in  English.  Ex. :  Je 
n'irai  pas,  a  moins  que  vous  n'alliez  aussi,  'I  will  not  go 
unless  you  go  also.' 

Other  Negatives. 

Neither  .  .  .  nor  accompanying  verbs  in  principal  clauses 
is  generally  rendered  by  a  repetition  of  the  ordinary  nega- 
tive. Ex.;  II  ne  parle  pas  a  son  cousin,  il  ne  veut  meme 


94  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

pas  le  regarder,  '  He  neither  speaks  to  his  cousin,  nor  is  he 
even  willing  to  look  at  him.7 

Neither  .  .  .  nor  accompanying  the  subject  or  the  object, 
or  used  with  the  verb  of  a  dependent  clause,  is  rendered 
by  ni  .  .  .  ni;  observe,  however,  that  ne  is  required  before 
the  verb  of  the  'principal  clause.  Ex.:  Ni  for,  ni  la 
grandeur  ne  nous  rendent  heureux,  'Neither  gold  nor 
grandeur  can  make  us  happy.7  [LA  FONTAINE.]  II  ne  salt 
ni  lire,  ni  ecrire,  'He  can  neither  read  nor  write.7  Je  ne 
veux  ni  qu'il  Use,  ni  qvlil  ecrive,  'I  wish  him  neither  to 
read  nor  to  write.7 

Nor  at  the  beginning  of  a  clause  not  followed  by  neither 
is  translated  et  .  .  .  ne.  Ex.:  'He  has  not  written  that 
letter  yet,  nor  will  he  do  it  of  his  own  accord,7  II  rfa  pas 
encore  ecrit  cette  lettre,  et  il  ne  le  fera  pas  de  lui-meme. 

Nor  .  .  .  either  (without  a  verb)  are  translated  ne  .  .  . 
non  plus.  Ex.:  'He  will  not  write,  nor  I  either,7  II  ne 
veut  pas  ecrire,  ni  moi  non  plus. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

The  following  prepositions  are  likely  to  present  difficul- 
ties: de  'of,  from,  by,7  a  'to,7  en  'in,7  dans  'in,7  par  'by,7 pour 
'for,7  avant  'before,7  apres  'after,7  devant  'before,7  derriere 
'  behind 7 ;  *  their  value  is  explained  as  briefly  as  possible. 

"DE." 

I.  —  The  preposition  de  marks  the  place  of  origin,  from 
which  the  movement  starts.  Ex. :  II  vient  de  Marseille, 
'He  is  coming  from  Marseilles.7  II  est  ne  de  parents 
pauvres,  'He  was  born  of  poor  parents.7  Nous  nous  trou- 

1  For  de  with  the  infinitive,  see  page  82 ;  a  with  the  infinitive,  see 
page  83 ;  par,  pour,  sans,  apres  with  the  infinitive,  see  page  84 ;  see  also 
the  table,  page  113. 


PREPOSITIONS.  95 

vions  a  une  lieue  de  la  ville,  'We  were  one  league  from 
town.'  Ce  sont  des  vers  de  Racine,  'This  is  poetry  by 
Racine/  or  'This  is  Racine's  poetry.' 

Hence  de  is  used  in  locutions  like  loin  de  '  far  from/  hors 
<!('•  '  outside,  beyond,  except/  en  deca  de  *  on  this  side  of/  en 
dela  de  'on  that  side  of/  en  avant  de  'in  front  of/  en  sus  de 
'over  and  above/  and  in  pres  de  'near  to/  proche  de  'near, 
nigh/  approcher  de  'to  approach/  rapprocher  de  'bring  near 
to';  the  distance  being  considered  from  a  certain  point. 
Compare  with  the  English  expression:  The  vessel  is  lying 
OFF  shore. 

The  use  of  de  before  cote  and  part  (when  we  should 
expect  a)  must  be  explained  in  the  same  way.  Ex.: 
Regarded  de  ce  cote,  'Look  on  that  side.'  Je  ne  vais  jamais 
de  ce  cote,  'I  never  go  to  that  side.'  Us  coururent  de  tons 
les  cotes,  'They  ran  in  all  directions.' 

Hence:  1.  De  is  used  to  express  approximate  quantity, 
and  marks  the  lowest  number,  a  being  used  for  the  highest 
number  indicated.  Ex. :  Us  etaient  de  vingt  a  trente,  '  They 
were  between  twenty  and  thirty.  (Twenty  is  considered 
as  the  starting  point.) 

2.  De  is   used   after  verbs   and   adjectives   expressing 
taking,  disuse,  abstaining,  deprivation,  difference,  exclusion, 
preservation,  recovery,  and  after  the  verbs  with  the  prefix 
de  or  dis,  such  as  priver,  prendre,  se  deshabituer,  s'abstenir, 
distinguer,  preserver,  guerir;  and  after  the  words  exempt, 
libre,  orphelin,  etc. 

3.  De  is  used  after  comparatives  *  and  words  expressing 
measure,  number,  quantity.     Ex. :    Plus  de  vingt  personnes, 
'More  than  twenty  persons.'     Une  tasse  de  lait,  'A  cup  of 

1  When  two  different  persons  or  objects  are  compared,  que  is  required 
after  the  comparative ;  plus  de  refers  exclusively  to  number  or  quantity. 
Ex.:  J'ai  plus  de  livres  que  vous,  'I  have  more  books  than  you.'  J'ai 
plus  de  vingt  livres,  'I  have  more  than  twenty  books.' 


96  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

milk.'    Mon  jardin  est  le  quadruple  du  votre,  'My  garden  is 
four  times  as  large  as  yours.' 

4.  De  is  used  after  verbs  of  receiving,  knoiving,  borrow- 
ing, requiring,  expecting,   and  acquiring.      Ex.:    Les  agre- 
ments  qu'il  a  recus  de  la  nature,  '  The  advantages  with,  which 
Nature  has  endowed  him.'     J 'attends  de  vous  un  rapport, 
'I  expect  a  report  from  you.'     J'ai  herite  de  mon  oncle, 
'I  have  inherited  my  uncle's  fortune.' 

Therefore  de  is  used  to  express  the  possessive.  Ex. :  Le 
livre  de  mon  ami,  'My  friend's  book.' 

5.  De  is  used  in  concurrence  with  par,  before  the  name 
of  the  agent  after  a  passive  verb.     (See  page  86.) 

II.  —  The  preposition  de  is  analytical ;  it  expresses  the 
material,  the  essence,  the  nature  of  things  ;  together  with 
its  noun  it  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  element.  Ex.:  Une 
robe  de  soie,  'A  silk  dress.'  Une  armee  de  volontaires,  'An 
army  of  volunteers.' 

6.  De  is  used  to  express  the  instrument,  the  means  by 
which  something  is  done.     Ex. :  Elle  nous  faisait  signe  de 
la  main,  '  She  was  beckoning  to  us  with  her  hand.'     Lie  de 
gout  et  d'amitie  avec  les  premiers  hommes,  '  Bound  by  incli- 
nation and  friendship  to  the  best  men.'     Us  m'ont  impor- 
tune de  leurs  demandes,  'They  importuned  me  with  their 
requests.'      II  joue    admirablement   du  violon,    'He    plays 
admirably  on  the  violin.' 

REMARK.  —  In  most  similar  cases  we  find  de  employed 
to  express  the  usage  of  parts  of  the  body,  or  something  in 
close  connection  with  the  person  while  avec  marks  an  out- 
ward instrument.  Ex.:  II  ecrit  avec  une  plume  d'or,  'He 
writes  with  a  gold  pen.'  Par  (see  page  102)  would  call 
special  attention  to  the  instrumentality  and  might  often 
be  rendered  "by  the  means  of."  Ex.:  Lies,  comme  Us' 
Vetaient,  par  tant  de  liens  intimes,  'Bound,  as  they  were, 
by  so  many  friendly  ties.' 


PREPOSITIONS.  97 

7.  De  is  used  to  introduce  the  reason,  the  cause.     Ex. : 
De  grace,  secourez-moi  !   'For  pity's   sake,   help  me !'    La 
France  est  tombee  de  fatigue    aux   mains   d'un   dictateur, 
Trance  fell  from  exhaustion  into  the  hands  of  a  dictator.' 
Nous  nous  trouvons  bien  en  France  du  regime  republicain, 
'We  are  pleased  with  the  republican  government  in  France.' 
This  value  is  even  extended  so  as  to  express  the  measure. 
Ex. :    Une  fille  dgee  de  vingt  ans,  'A  girl  twenty  years  old.' 
Une  armee  forte  de  cent   mille    hommes,   'An   army  of   a 
hundred  thousand  men';  and  even  De  Vaveu  de  tons,  Napo- 
leon est  un  grand  general  'By  universal  consent,  Napoleon 
is  a  great  general.' 

8.  De  is  used  after  words  expressing  grief,  complaint, 
anxiety,    fear,    doubt,    regret,    shame,    jealousy,    disgust, 
astonishment,   and  anger,   as   plaindre,   pleurer,    trembler, 
inquiet,    e  tonne,    envieux,    las,    mecontent ;    and    also    joy, 
pleasure,  railing,  desire,  care,  satisfaction,  revenge,  pun- 
ishment,   accusation,   excuse,  praise,  blame,  thanks,    con- 
solation. 

9.  De  is    sometimes   used   in   answering   the    question 
comment  'how.'     Ex.:  Louis  XVI  venait  d'etre  ramene  de 
force,  'Louis  XVI.  had  just  been  brought  back  by  force.' 
Peut-on  se  comporter  de  la  sorte?  'Can  one  behave  in  that 
way?' 

For  the  partitive  use  of  de,  see  page  8  ;  for  de  with  the 
definite  article  see  page  5. 

"A." 

I.  — De  marks  the  movement  from  a  point,  a  on  the  con- 
trary marks  the  movement  towards  a  point.  Ex. :  Je  vais 
a  Paris,  'I  am  going  to  Paris.'1  Je  pense  a  mon pays,  'I 
am  thinking  of  my  country'  (that  is  my  thoughts  go 

1  For  movement  towards  a  province,  or  country  or  a  continent,  see  en 
page  100, 


98  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

towards  my  country).1  Je  pardonne  a  mes  ennemis,  'I  par- 
don my  enemies'  (i.  e.,  my  pardon  goes  out  to  them). 
Vous  visez  a  Pimmortalite,  'You  aim  at  immortality.' 
Louis-Philippe  d'  Orleans  fut  appele  au  trone,  '  Louis  Phillip 
of  Orleans  was  called  to  the  throne.'  Chaque  lame  y  j etait 
des  galets  a  plus  de  cinquante  pieds  dans  les  terres,  'Each 
wave  threw  pebbles  more  than  fifty  feet  inland/  Atteindre 
a  une  certaine  hauteur,  'To  reach  a  certain  height.'  Ilfaut 
se  borner  a  cela,  'One  must  limit  oneself  to  that'  (i.  e.,  one 
may  reach  that,  but  no  further).  11  faut  faire  a  ses  vices 
une  guerre  continuelle,  'One  must  continually  wage  war 
against  his  vices.' 

1.  A  is  dative  attributive.     Ex. :  Donner  quelque  chose  a 
quelqu'un,  'To  give  somebody  something.'     Tout  est  a  ses 
amis,  'All  belongs  to  his  friends.'      C'est  indiscret  a  moi, 
'It  is  indiscreet  in  me.' 

2.  A  is  used  after  words  expressing  participation,  viz : 
participer,  concourir,  compatir,  cooperer,  commun,  etc.     Ex. : 
Compatir  au  malheur,  'To  feel  pity  for  misfortune.'     After 

•words  expressing  fitness,  convenience,  capacity,  inclination, 
profit,  command,  superiority,  obedience,  possibility,  or  the 
reverse :  Implacable  au  superbe,  et  clement  au  vaincu,  '  Inex- 
orable to  the  proud,  and  merciful  to  the  conquered.' 
[PONSARD.]  Napoleon  fut  a  la  France  ce  que  la  fatalite 
est  au  libre  arbitre,  'Napoleon  was  to  France  what  fatalism 
is  to  free  will/ 

3.  A  has  become  a  locative,  it  shows  and  indicates  the 
place  where  something  is.     Ex. :  Je  suis  a  Paris,  '  I  am  in 
Taris.'     La  nation  etait  calme  a  la  surface,  inquiete  au  fond, 
'The  nation  was  calm  on  the  surface,  but  at  heart  it  was 
uneasy'  (i.  e.,  at  the  bottom).     J'ai  mat  a  la  tete,  'I  have 
a  headache.' 

1  Compare  this  meaning  with :   Que  pensez-vous  de  cela?  'What  do  you 
think  of  that  ? '    (Examine  it,  see  what  there  is  in  it.    See  de  II,  page  96.) 


PREPOSITIONS.  99 

4.  A  determines  the  time.     Ex.:  Remettre  une  chose  a 
huitaine,  'To  delay  something  a  week/     Entre  vous  et  moi 
c'est  a  la  vie  a  la  mort,  'Between  us  is  a  tie  for  life7  (until 
death  do  us  part).     La  nuit  du  28  au  29,  'The  night  of  the 
28th  and  29th. 7      Venez  ce  soir  a  liuit  heures,  '  Come  to-night 
at  eight  o'clock.'      A  vingt-cinq  ans  il  devint  colonel,  'At 
twenty-five  years  he  became  a  colonel.7     A  de  longs  inter- 
valles,    'At   long   intervals.7      Ce  fleuve  file  a  peine  trois 
milles  a    Pheure,    'This    river   runs    scarcely  three    miles 
an  hour.7 

Notice  that  this  determination  of  time  must  be  taken  in 
a  very  extended  sense.  Ex. :  A  cette  terrible  vue  le  matelot 
s'elanga  a  la  mer,  'At  this  terrible  sight  (i.  e.,  when  he  saw) 
the  sailor  threw  himself  into  the  sea.7  C'est  a  lui  que  le 
charme  a  commence,  'It  is  with  him  (in  his  time)  that  the 
charm  began.7 

Here  also  belong  the  expressions  un  a  un  'one  by  one/ 
brin  a  brin  'bit  by  bit,7  goutte  a  goutte  'drop  by  drop,7  tete  a 
tete  'face  to  face/  dos  a  dos  'back  to  back/  although  the 
last  two  might  be  referred  to  No.  3. 

5.  A  is  descriptive  (not  analytical,  as  de) ;  it  does  not 
analyze  the   contents,  the  material,  the  essence,  but  de- 
scribes   some    outwardly   perceptible    circumstance.     Ex.: 
Voyez-vous  cette  dame  a  robe  bleue  ?    '  Do  you  see  that  lady 
with  the  blue  dress  ? 7    Macaroni  a  la  Napolitaine,  '  Maca- 
roni cooked  in  the  Neapolitan  fashion.7     II  esl  a  genoux, 
'He  is  on  his  knees.7 

Hence  a  comes  near  the  expression  of  the  instrumental 
(compare  with  de  answering  the  question  how,  page  97); 
yet  it  seems  more  descriptive  than  de.  Ex.:  Fouler  aux 
pieds,  eTo  trample  under  feet.7  Recevoir  a  bras  ouverts, 
'To  receive  with  open  arms.7  Crier  a  haute  voix,  'To  ex- 
claim in  a  loud  voice.7  Des  ouvrages  marques  au  coin  du 


100  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

genie,  *  Works  bearing  the  imprint  of  genius.'  Cesar  prend 
le  premier  une  coupe  a  la,  main,1  'Cesar  is  the  first  to  take 
a  cup  in  his  hand.'  [RAPINE.]  Vendre,  acheter  a  vil  prix, 
'To  sell,  to  buy  at  very  low  price.'  Escompter  a  raison  de 
six  pour  cent,  'To  discount  at  six  per  cent.'  Faites  a  votre 
tete,  'Act  according  to  your  own  idea.' 

6.  After  words  of  requiring,  or  taking  away,  a  is  used 
(generally  in  concurrence  with  de).2  Ex.:  Prendre  quelque 
chose  a  quelqu'un,  'To  take  away  something  from  some- 
body.' Je  veux  vous  gagner  a  chacun  cinq  cents  louis,  'I 
wish  to  win  five  hundred  louis  from  each  one  of  you.' 

"A,  EN,  DANS." 

A  is  locative  (see  page  98)  and  is  used  as  such  before 
names  of  cities,  and,  generally  speaking,  before  names  of 
extra-European  countries  and  provinces.  Ex. :  Je  vais  aux 
Etats-Unis,  'I  am  going  to  the  United  States.'  Au  Bresil, 
au  Japon,  aux  Indes,  a  Java,  etc.  Names  of  continents  and 
of  European  countries  and  provinces  take  en.  Ex.:  Alter 
en  Amerique,  en  Normandie,  etc. 

REMARK.  —  Occasional  exceptions  are  found.  La  Fon- 
taine has  written  alter  a  V  Amerique  ;  en  Chine  is  also  in 
common  use. 

En  and  dans  both  originally  signified  that  something 
was  enclosed ;  but  dans  requires  the  possibility  of  a  positive 
enclosure.  Ex. :  Aller  a  la  campagne,  '  To  go  to  the  coun- 
try.' (No  limit  is  thought  of.)  Etre  en  ville,  '  To  be  in 
town.'  (A  town  is  limited.)  Etre  dans  la  ville.  '  To  be 

1  Notice  the  difference  between  a  la  main  (as  above) ;  Avoir  une  affaire 
en  main,  *  To  have  something  well  in  hand '  (in  one's  power) ;  and  Dans  la 
main,  *  Within  the  hand '  (the  fingers  being  closed) ;  Sur  la  main  would 
mean  'On  the  open,  flat  hand.' 

2  While  a  answers,  generally  speaking,  to  the  Latin  preposition  ad,  it 
takes  in  No,  6  the  value  of  the  Latin  a&, 


PREPOSlT  XO  >TS  .*  101 

within  the  limits  of  the  town.'  « While,  this  '.istole  priimtive 
meaning  of  en  and  dans,  their  actual  use  is  much  more  ex- 
tended. 

En  refers  not  only  to  the  cubic  conception  of  place,  but 
also  to  the  surface  and  may  be  translated  in,  on,  upon, 
toward,  to,  etc.,  in  answer  to  the  questions  where  or  whither. 
Ex.:  Etre  en  pleine  mer,  'To  be  on  the  open  sea.'  Loger 
en  chambre  garnie,  'To  rent  a  furnished  room.'  Monter  en 
voiture,  'To  step  into  a  carriage.'  Voltiger  de  fleur  en  Jieur, 
'To  flit  from  flower  to  flower.'  This  conception  is  extended 
to  clothing.  Ex.:  Eire  en  manteau,  'To  wear  a  cloak.'  En 
bottes,  'To  wear  boots.'  Etre  en  armes,  'To  be  armed  or  to 
be  up  in  arms/  etc.,  and  also  to  exterior  and  interior  cir- 
cumstances of  all  kinds.  Ex.:  Etre  en  guerre,  'To  be  at 
war.'  Etre  en  liberte,  'To  be  free.'  La  vigne  est  en  fleur s, 
'The  vineyard  is  in  bloom.'  It  is  also  used  after  words 
expressing  belief,  confidence,  hope.  Ex. :  Je  crois  en  Dieu, 
'I  believe  in  God.'  Like  de  (page  96)  it  expresses  the 
material.  Ex. :  line  robe  en  so'ie,  'A  silk  dress.' 

As  regards  TIME  en  either  expresses  an  extent  of  time 
within  which  something  has  happened  or  the  time  neces- 
sary for  an  action.  Ex. :  En  1871  on  proclama  la  liepubli- 
que  a  Paris,  '  In.  1871  the  republic  was  proclaimed  in  Paris.' 
Paris  n'a  pas  ete  bdti  en  un  jour,  'Paris  was  not  built  in 
a  day.' 

Dans,  not  preceding  the  definite  article,  marks  the  limit 
of  time  after  which  something  is  to  happen.  Ex. :  Dans 
hult  jours,  'In  a  week'  (i.  e.,  after  the  expiration  of  a 
week).  Dans  imequinzaine,  'In  a  fortnight.'1  Dans,  pre- 
ceding the  definite  article,  has  the  meaning  of  ivitkin.  Ex. : 
Dans  la  quinzaine^  'Within  a  fortnight.'  Dans  les  huit 

jours,  'Within  a  weel&' 
] 

1 II  y  a  is  the  opposite  df  dan$>  Ex.  •  II  y  a  dix  ans,  'Ten  years  ago.' 
H  y  a  longtemps,  'Long  a"gb.'  11  ?/  avait  deja  ditt  ans  que  *  .  .  'It  was 
already  ten  years  since  .  .  .' 


102  rnE>r(JH  GRAMMAR. 


(See  remark,  page  96.) 

As  to  spacebar  indicates  that  an  action  covers  a  certain 
ground  and  extends  beyond.  Ex.:  Passer  par  la  porte, 
'  To  go  through  the  door.7  II  lui  passa  son  epee  par  le  corps, 
*  He  thrust  his  sword  through  his  body.' 

The  action  may  also  be  conceived  as  covering  a  de- 
termined space  and  going  on  within  it.  Ex.:  II  existe  par 
le  monde  un  homme  qui  devait  etre  consulte,  'There  is  living 
in  the  world  a  man  who  should  have  been  consulted.' 
Nous  etions  par  trente  degres  de  latitude,  'We  were  about 
the  30th  degree  of  latitude.' 

As  to  time,j9OT  (synonyitis=pendant,  durant)  marks  the 
extent  and  is  somewhat  descriptive.  Ex.:  Ou  allez-vous 
par  ce  mauvais  temps?  'Where  are  you  going  in  this  bad 
weather  ? ' 

Par  also  expresses  the  personal  agent  especially  after  a 
passive  verb  (see  page  86),  or  an  intermediary,  a  connecting 
person  or  object.  Ex.:  Cette  guerre  a  ete  conduite  par  un 
habile  general,  '  This  war  has  been  directed  by  a  skilful 
general.'  II  deseendait  du  roipar  les  femmes, '  He  descended 
from  the  King  in  the  female  line.'  Charles  d'Espagne, 
etranger  par  sa  mere,  pretend  au  Saint-Empire,  '  Charles  of 
Spain,  a  foreigner  through  his  mother,  aspires  to  the  throne 
of  the  Holy  Eoman  Empire.'  [V.  HUGO.] 

Hence :  1.  It  expresses  the  means.  Ex. :  Le  general 
remplaca  le  gouverneur  par  un  Frangais,  'The  general 
replaced  the  governor  by  a  Frenchman.' 

2.  It  expresses  the  intermediate  object,  the  instrument. 
Ex. :  II  a  obtenu  cela  par  force,  '  He  has  obtained  this  by 
force.'  (Compare  with  de.)  Chaque  siecle  se  caracterise 
par  sa  grande  maladie,  'Each  century  is  characterized  by 
its  own  great  disorder.'  [MICHELET.]  'II  est  venu  par  le 


PREPOSITIONS.  103 

bateau,  '  He  has  coine  by  the  boat.'  It  is  in  this  sense  that 
it  occurs  after  verbs  expressing,  beginning,  ending,  seizing, 
holding,  and  judging.  Ex.:  Prenez-le  par  le  bras,  'Take 
hold  of  him  by  the  arm.' 

3.  It  expresses  the  motive.  Ex. :  II  a  fait  cela  par  am- 
bition, 'He  has  done  this  through  ambition.'  Faut-il  juger 
les  diamants  par  la  fange  qui  les  recouvre?  'Ought  we  to 
judge  diamonds  by  the  dirt  that  covers  them?'  Par pitie, 
Tor  pity's  sake.' 

Par  is  often  distributive.  Ex. :  II  va  chez  lui  deux 
fois  par  an,  '  He  goes  home  twice  a  year.' 

De  par  is  really  a  different  locution ;  it  means  by  the 
authority  of.  Ex. :  De  par  la  loi,  '  By  the  authority  of  the 
law.' 

"POUR" 

is  equivalent  to  the  English  preposition  for  and  the 
locution  "in  order  to,"  expressing  the  destination  or  the 
motive.  Ex.:  Faites  cela  pour  moi,  'Do  that  for  my  sake' 
(or  for  me).  Traduire  mot  pour  mot  (also  mot  a  mot),  'To 
translate  word  for  word.'  Je  le  fais  pour  vous plaire,  'I  do 
it  to  please  you.' 

"AVANT,   APRES." 

Avant,  apres,  mean  before,  after,  but  are  used  only  in 
the  relation  of  time.  Ex. :  Avant  Louis  XIV  Vautorite  du 
roi  etait  faible,  apres  lui  elle  fut  absolue,  'Before  the  time 
of  Louis  XIV.  the  authority  of  the  King  was  weak, 
after  him  it  was  absolute.' 

"DEVANT,  DERRIERE" 

also  mean  before,  after  (behind);  but  they  are  used  in 
relation  to  place.  Ex.:  II  se  tenait  devant  moi;  derriere 
moi  se  trouvaient  mes  amis,  'He  was  standing  before  me, 
behind  me  were  my  friends.' 


104  FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER    X. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

Que  (that)  must  generally  be  expressed  even  when  in 
English  the  conjunction  that  is  omitted.  Ex.:  Je  crois 
QUE  vous  vous  trompez,  '  I  think  you  are  mistaken.' 

Que  may  take  the  place  of  almost  any  French  conjunc- 
tion to  avoid  its  repetition  before  a  second  clause.  Ex.: 
Lorsqu'il  fut  venu  et  qu'il  nous  eut  raconte  ses  aventures 
(not  et  lorsqu'it),  'When  he  had  returned  and  related  his 
adventures  to  us.*  S'il  etait  intelligent  et  qu'il  put  se 
faire  agreer,  If  he  were  intelligent  and  could  succeed  in 
having  himself  accepted.'  (Notice  that  que  replacing  si 
in  the  second  and  subsequent  clauses,  requires  the  sub- 
junctive.) 

The  following  conjunctions  and  conjunctive  locutions 
are  construed  with  the  indicative,  because  they  imply  an 
affirmation,  a  reasoning,  a  perception,  a  certainty:  comme, 
si,  lorsque,  quand,  and  a  la  charge  que,  a  cause  que,  a  mesure 
que,  ainsi  que,  attendu  que,  aussi  bien  que,  aussitot  que, 
autant  que,  apres  que,  Men  entendu  que,  de  meme  que,  durant 
que,  depuis  que,  des  que,  non  plus  que,  outre  que,  parce  que, 
pendant  que,  puisque,  peut-etre  que,  sitot  que,  suivant  que, 
tandis  que,  tant  que,  vu  que. 

For  conjunctions  and  locutions  which  take  the  sub- 
junctive, see  page  78. 

For  si,  see  pages  68,  70,  73,  and  74. 


CHAPTER    XT. 
INTERJECTIONS. 


Interjections  are  very  numerous  in  French,  much  more 
So  than  in  English.      In  many  case's  where  the  French 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  105 

freely  use  inter jections,  the  English  use  none.  Hence  the 
frequent  impossibility  of  translating  them.  Particular 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  translate  them  word  for  word. 
This  is  more  especially  the  case  with  expressions  including 
the  name  of  the  Divinity,  since  the  literal  equivalent  would 
be  the  expression  either  of  deep  feeling  or  of  profanity, 
neither  of  which  is  necessarily  implied  in  the  French.  Mon 
Dieu,  for  instance,  often  precedes  an  explanation ;  it  al»o 
expresses  astonishment,  and  may  occasionally  be  the  sign 
of  deep  emotion,  as  it  is  in  English. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
GENERAL   REMARKS. 

The  French  language  belongs  to  the  Romance  or  Neo- 
Latin  branch  of  the  Indo-European  languages.  Its  sister 
languages,  also  derived  from  the  Latin,  are  the  Portuguese?- 
the  Spanish?  and  the  Catalan,  spoken  in  the  Spanish  pen- 
insula ;  the  Provencal,  spoken  in  southern  France ;  the 
RJiceto-Romanic  (Ladinian,  Romauntsch),  spoken  in  the 
southern  part  of  Switzerland  and  in  Frioul ;  the  Italian, 
spoken  in  Italy,  in  the  southern  part  of  Tyrol,  in  Illyria 
and  in  Dalmatia;  and  the  Roumanian  (Wallachian),  spoken 
by  the  Ylachs  in  Roumania,  and  some  other  portions  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  in  Bessarabia  (Russia),  and  by  an  im- 
portant fraction  of  the  population  in  Hungary  (about 
3,500,000). 

Through  the  gradual  decomposition  of  the  Latin  tongue 
two  languages,  or  rather  two  groups  of  dialects,  developed 

1  The  Portuguese  is  spoken  in  the  Portuguese  colonies  and  in  Brazil. 

2  The  Spanish  is  spoken  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  in  Mexico,  and  in  the 
greater   part   of    South  America;    the   Spanish  speaking  population  of 
America  is  estimated  at  about  twenty  million  people. 


106  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

slowly  in  France;  one  to  the  north  of  the  river  Loire,  the 
other  to  the  south.1 

The  southern  group,  Langue  d'oc  or  Provencal?  spread 
over  southern  France ;  some  dialects  of  northern  Italy  and 
the  Catalan  in  Spain  bear  a  closer  relation  to  it  than  to 
Italian  or  Spanish.  The  Provenqal  became  the  expression 
of  a  brilliant  civilization,  and  gained  well  nigh  universal 
recognition  through  its  poetry.  But  political  events  gave 
predominance  to  the  North,  and  reduced  the  Langue  d'oc 
nearly  to  the  rank  of  a  local  dialect,  although  even  now  it 
has  a  literature  of  which  Mistral  (the  author  of  Mireio)  is 
the  acknowledged  master. 

The  Langue  d'o'il 2  or  northern  French,  had  at  first 
a  number  of  dialects  which  were  little  by  little  absorbed 
by  the  French  proper,  i.  e.,  the  language  of  the  lie  de 
France.  It  has  documents  going  back  to  the  ninth  cen- 
tury (842  A.D.). 

Modern  French  begins  with  the  17th  century.  Since 
that  time  the  syntax  has  changed  but  little,  and  although 
the  vocabulary  has  been  considerably  increased,  the  lan- 
guage is  the  same  in  its  main  features.  During  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries,  French  was  so  universally  adopted  by 
the  European  aristocracy  that  it  came  near  driving  out 
other  languages  (notably  G-erman)  from  use  in  the  court 
circles  of  their  own  countries.  This  was  in  part  owing  to 
the  fact  that  France  has  produced  an  almost  uninterrupted 
series  of  remarkable  writers. 

1  Of  course,  this  line  of  demarcation  between  the  dialects  is  not  accurate ; 
but  it  shows  in  a  general  way  the  respective  position  of  the  two  groups ;  in 
the  west  especially  the  langue  d'oil  prevailed  far  to  the  south  of  the  Loire. 

2  Oc  was  used  in  southern  France  to  say  yes;  in  the  North,  oil  was  used 
in  the  same  sense.    The  two  languages  were  commonly  distinguished  by 
their  different  ways  of  affirming,  and  named  accordingly.     The  word 
Provencal  is  derived  from  the  word  Provence,  the  land  formerly  called 
Provincia  by  the  Romans. 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  107 

French  is  spoken  throughout  France,  although  Provencal 
is  as  yet  popular  in  the  South ;  a  Celtic  dialect  obtains  in 
some  parts  of  Bretagne,  and  Flemish  in  the  extreme  North. 
Outside  of  the  limits  of  France  and  the  French  colonies, 
French  is  used  in  Belgium,  and  in  the  western  cantons 
of  Switzerland.  It  has  a  strong  hold  on  a  large  part  of 
the  population  of  Canada ; *  numerous  colonies  of  French- 
Canadians  are  found  in  many  parts  of  New-England;  in 
Louisiana  also  the  people  of  French  descent  have  clung  to 
their  language. 

As  we  have  seen,  French  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  to 
which  it  can  trace  the  origin  of  at  least  ninety  per  cent,  of 
its  words  ;  but  by  Latin,  we  must  not  understand  only  the 
literary  language  found  in  books,  but  the  popular  expres- 
sions and  slang  used  by  soldiers  and  traders.2  Words 
taken  from  the  literary  Latin  were,  however,  added  in  large 
numbers  in  the  course  of  time  to  the  popular  fund. 

The  other  languages,  of  which  we  find  the  traces  in  the 
French,  are: 

1.  The  Celtic j  which  was  the  language  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  greater  part  of  Gaul  at  the  time  of  the  Eoman 
invasion,   but   has    completely   disappeared.      The    Celtic 
inhabitants  of  Bretagne  are  later  immigrants ;  they  came 
from  Great  Britain  between  the  5th  and  the  7th  centuries 
after  Christ.    Chevallet  counts  240  Celtic  words  in  French; 
many  of  these  are,  however,  of  uncertain  origin.     Gener- 
ally speaking,  we  find  undoubted  traces  of  Celtic  only  in 
the  names  of  localities. 

2.  The  Greek.     A  few   Greek  words   may  have  come 
through  Greek  colonies  established  on  the  shores  of  the 

1  Canadian-French  has  suffered  both  in  vocabulary  and  syntax  from  its 
contact  with  English. 

2  Persons  not  acquainted  with  the  Science  of  Philology  should  not  ven- 
ture in  looking  for  etymologies ;  superficial  resemblances  are  often  very 
misleading. 


108  FREHCH   GRAMMAR. 

Mediterranean;  and  perhaps  also  through  Greek  merchants 
who  frequented  them  later  on.  Many  Greek  words  came 
through  the  Latin;  these  referred  especially  to  Christian 
rites,  ideas,  or  feelings.  Much  later,  chiefly  during  the 
16th  century,  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  scholars 
introduced  Greek  words ;  and  lastly,  in  modern  times  many 
scientific  terms  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Greek. 

3.  The  Germanic.     The  West-Goths  conquered  southern 
France,  and  remained  until  the  time  when  their  posses- 
sions were  limited  to  the  Spanish  peninsula.    The  Sueviaiis 
and   the  Vandals    also   passed  through  France;    and  the 
Burgundians  settled  in  Switzerland  and  the  neighboring 
parts  of  France.     The  Franks,  who  invaded  France  under 
Chlodio,  were  a  German  tribe;   they  conquered  the   land 
to  the  river  Somme  about  the  year  445  A.D.     Chlodowig, 
commonly  called  Clovis,  extended  their  possessions  to  the 
Loire  (486).    Later  on  the  Normans  settled  in  the  province 
now  called  Normandy.      But  all   these  influences  taken 
together  did  not  produce  more  than  one  thousand  words, 
which  were  assimilated  and  soon  clothed  in  a  Latin  garb. 

4.  The  Arabic.     A  few  words  are  derived  from  Arabic 
sources,  mainly  through  intercourse  with  Spain,  then  also 
through  the  Crusades;   and  a  few  more  have  been  added 
since  the  conquest  of  Algeria  (1830). 

5.  Italian,  Spanish,  English.    As  the  intercourse  between 
nations  increased,  the  languages  began  borrowing  from  each 
other.     Twice  since  the  16th  century  did  Kings  of  France 
marry  Italian  princesses ;    at  one   time    Spanish   became 
popular  at  court.     A  few  Italian  and  Spanish  words  sur- 
vived the  fashions  of  the  day.     Very  recently  also  many 
terms  of  railroad  engineering  and  sport,  and  others  refer- 
ring to  social  usages  have  been  borrowed  from  the  English. 

The  French  language  has   been  a  most   potent  factor 
in  transforming  Old-English   (Anglo-Saxon)   into  Middle- 


GEKEBAL   REMARKS.  109 

English.  This  influence  was,  of  course,  mainly  active  after 
the  Norman  conquest,  and  through  the  medium  of  the 
special  dialects  of  the  conquerors.  English  Literature  of 
the  18th  century,  in  common  with  that  of  other  European 
nations, .  felt  the  influence  of  the  French  language  and 
literature  of  the  time.  The  study  of  the  transformation  of 
the  English  is  most  interesting ;  it  presupposes,  however, 
in  the  student  a  scholarly  knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
of  Erench,  more  especially  of  the  old  French  dialects  of 
the  North  and  the  West. 


110 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


ALPHABETICAL  TABLE  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

REMAKK.  —  The  references  are  to  the  number  in  the 
series  of  verbs  and  to  the  page  where  the  conjugation  is 
explained,  or  to  the  model  verbs.  Certain  verbs  called 
defective  lack  persons  and  tenses ;  they  are  included  in 
this  list. 


NO. 

PAGE 

NO.    PAGE. 

NO.    PAGE. 

Absoudre 

1 

50  : 

11 

52 

Conque'rir 

4 

51 

S'abstenir 

84 

58 

Boire 

12 

52 

Consentir 

47 

55 

Abstraire 

80 

58 

Bouillir 

13 

52 

Construire 

31 

53 

Accourir 

23 

52 

Braire 

14 

52 

Contenir  ' 

84 

58 

Accroire 

2 

51 

Bruire  4 

Contraindre 

25 

53 

Accroitre 

3 

51 

Ceindre 

25 

53 

Contredire 

21 

52 

Accueillir 

28 

53 

Choir 

16 

52 

Contrefaire 

40 

54 

Acque"rir 

4 

51 

Circoncire  5 

19 

52 

Contrevenir 

84 

58 

Admettre 

49 

55 

Circonscrire 

36 

54 

Convaincre 

82 

58 

Advenir 

9 

51 

Circonvenir 

84 

58 

Convenir 

84 

58 

Aller1 

5 

51 

Clore 

17 

52 

Coudre 

22 

52 

Apparaitre 

20 

52 

Commettre 

49 

55 

Courir 

23 

52 

Apparoir 

7 

51 

Comparaitre 

20 

52 

Courre 

24 

53 

Appartenir 

84 

58 

Comparoir  6 

Couvrir 

55 

56 

Apprendre 

64 

57 

Complaire 

60 

56 

Craindre 

25 

53 

Arguer  2 

Comprendre 

64 

57 

Croire 

26 

53 

Assaillir 

81 

58 

Compromettre 

49 

55 

Croitre  ' 

27 

53 

Asseoir  3 

8 

51 

Conclure 

18 

52 

Cueillir 

28 

53 

Astreindre 

25 

53 

Concourir 

23 

52 

Cuire 

31 

53 

Atteindre 

25 

53 

Conduire 

31 

53 

De'choa-r 

29 

53 

Attraire 

80 

58 

Confire 

19 

52 

De"clore 

17 

52 

Avenir 

9 

51 

Conjoindre 

25 

53 

De"confire 

19 

52 

Avoir 

10 

51 

Connaitre 

20 

52 

De"coudre 

22 

52 

1  For  s'en  aller  see  No.  6,  page  58. 

2  Arguer,  takes  a  diaeresis  (trema)  over  the  u  whenever  it  immediately  precedes 
an  e  mute.    Ex.:  J*  argue,  Us  arguent.    This  occurs  in  ihepres.  ind.,  the  impera- 
tive, and  pres.  subj. 

3  Asseoir  is  conjugated  with  avoir,  while  the  reflexive  form  s'asseoir  takes  etre. 

4  Bruire  has  only  the  following  forms:  Pres.  inf.,  bruire.    Pres.  part.,  bruyant, 
or  bruissant.  Third  person  sing.  pres.  ind.,  il  bruit.   Imp.  ind.,  third  person  sing, 
and  plu.,  il  bruyait  or  bruissait,  ils  bruyaient  or  bruissaient. 

5  Past  part.,  circoncis. 

6  Comparoir  is  a  rare  infinitive  form  of  compamtfre. 


TABLE  OP  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Ill 


NO.    PAGE. 

NO. 

PAGE, 

NO. 

PAGE. 

De"couvrir 

55 

56 

Dissoudre 

1 

50 

Entr'ouvrir 

55 

56 

D  e'er  ire 

36 

54 

Distraire 

80 

58 

Envoyer 

38 

54 

De"croire  1 

Dormir 

33 

54 

Epreindre 

25 

53 

De"croitre 

27 

53 

Duire2 

Eprendre 

64 

57 

De"dire 

21 

52 

Ebouillir 

13 

52 

^quivaloir 

83 

58 

Deduire 

31 

53 

£  choir 

34 

54 

^teindre 

25 

53 

Ddfaillir 

30 

53 

Eclore 

35 

54 

litre   (see  con- 

Ddfaire 

40 

54 

Econduire 

31 

53 

jugation) 

39 

De"joindre 

25 

53 

Ecrire 

36 

54 

J^treindre 

25 

53 

De"mentir 

47 

55 

Elire 

44 

55 

Exclure 

18 

52 

De"mettre 

49 

55 

Emboire 

12 

52 

Extraire 

80 

58 

De"mouvoir  (only 

inf., 

Emettre 

49 

55 

Faillir 

39 

54 

and  rare) 

Emoudre 

50 

55 

Faire 

40 

54 

De"partir 

59 

56 

Emouvoir 

52 

56 

Falloir3 

De"peindre 

25 

53 

Empreindre 

25 

53 

Feindre 

25 

53 

Deplaire 

60 

56 

Enceindre 

25 

53 

Fe"rir,  past  part. 

fern 

De"pourvoir 

62 

56 

Enclore 

17 

52 

(no  other  forms) 

De"prendre 

64 

57 

Encourir 

23 

52 

Fleurir,  florir  4 

De"sapprendre 

64 

57 

Endormir 

33 

54 

Forclore 

17 

52 

Desservir 

75 

57 

Enduire 

31 

53 

Forfaire 

40 

54 

De"teindre 

25 

53 

Enfreindre 

25 

53 

Frire 

41 

54 

Detenir 

84 

58 

Enfuir 

42 

54 

Fuir 

42 

54 

De"truire 

31 

53 

Enjoindre 

25 

53 

Geindre 

25 

53 

Devenir 

84 

58 

Enque"rir 

4 

51 

Gesir 

43 

55 

Devetir 

85 

59 

Ensuivre 

37 

54 

Hair  5 

Dire 

32 

53 

Entremettre 

49 

55 

Imboire 

12 

52 

Disconvenir 

84 

58 

Entreprendre 

64 

57 

Induire 

31 

53 

Discourir 

23 

52 

Entretenir 

84 

58 

Inscrire 

36 

54 

Disjoindre 

25 

53 

Entrevenir 

84 

58 

Instruire 

31 

53 

Disparaitre 

20 

52 

Entrevoir 

87 

59 

Interdire 

21 

52 

1  Only  used  in  the  first  person  sing,  of  the  pres.  ind.,  je  decrois. 

2  Only  used  in  the  third  person  sing,  of  the  pres.  ind.,  il  duit. 

3  Falloir  is  impersonal,  and  has  consequently  only  the  third  per.  sing.,  of  all 
tenses:  Pres.  ind.,  il  faut.    Imp.,  il  fallait.     Past  dcf. ,  il  f allut.   Past  indef.,\\  a 
fallu.    Future,  il  faudra.    Pres.  subj.,  qu'il  faille.    Imp.  Subj.,  qu'il  f  allut.    It 
has  no  pres.  part. 

4  Regular,  except  that  the  old  form  florir  forms  a  pres.  part.,  ilorissant,  and  an 
imp,  ind.,  je  florissais,  etc.,  which  are  used  only  in  the  figurative  sense  (to 
flourish,  to  prosper). 

5  Regular,  except  that  the  three  persons  sing,  of  the  pres.  ind.,  and  second  per- 
son sing,  of  the  imperative,  omit  the  diaeresis  (trema).     Je  hais,  tu  hais,  il  hait, 
nous  lia'issons,  etc. 


112 


FRENCH   GBAMMAK. 


NO. 

PAGE 

NO. 

PAGE. 

NO.    PAGE. 

Intervenir 

84 

58 

Pleuvoir 

61 

56 

Redire 

32 

r  o 
OO 

Introduire 

31 

53 

Poindre 

56 

56 

Redormir 

33 

54 

Issir,    past 

part. 

issu 

Poursuivre 

78 

58 

Rdduire 

31 

53 

(no  other  form) 

Pourvoir 

62 

56 

Re"elire 

44 

55 

Joindre 

25 

53 

Pouvoir 

63 

56 

Refaire 

40 

54 

Lire 

44 

55 

Pr^dire 

21 

52 

Rejoindre 

25 

53 

Luire 

45 

55 

Prendre 

64 

57 

Relire 

44 

55 

Maintenir 

84 

58 

Prescrire 

36 

54 

Reluire 

45 

55 

Malfaire 

40 

54 

Pressentir 

47 

55 

Rernettre 

49 

55 

Maudire 

46 

55 

Prevaloir 

65 

57 

Remoudre 

50 

55 

Me'connaitre 

20 

52 

Pre"venir 

84 

58 

Renaitre 

53 

56 

Me'dire 

21 

52 

PreVoir 

66 

57 

Rendormir 

33 

54 

Me'faire 

40 

54 

Produire 

31 

53 

Rentraire 

80 

58 

Mentir 

47 

55 

Promettre 

49 

55 

Renvoyer 

38 

54 

Meprendre 

64 

57 

Promouvoir 

67 

57 

Repaitre 

58 

56 

Messeoir 

48 

55 

Proscrire 

36 

54 

Repartir 

59 

56 

Mettre 

49 

55 

Provenir 

84 

58 

R^partir  (see 

finir) 

Moudre 

50 

55 

Que"rir  (only  pres. 

in- 

Repeindre 

25 

53 

Mourir 

51 

55 

finitive) 

Repentir 

47 

55 

Mouvoir 

52 

56 

Rapprendre 

64 

57 

Reprendre 

64 

57 

Naitre 

53 

56 

Easseoir 

8 

51 

Reque'rir 

4 

51 

Nuire 

54 

56 

Ratteindre 

25 

53 

Re"soudre 

70 

57 

Obtenir 

84 

58 

Ravoir 

68 

57 

Ressentir 

47 

55 

Offrir 

55 

56 

Reboire 

12 

52 

Ressortir 

47 

55 

Oindre 

56 

56 

Rebouillir 

13 

52 

Ressouvenir 

84 

58 

Omettre 

49 

55 

Reclure  (rare) 

18 

52 

Restreindre 

25 

53 

Oui'r 

57 

56 

Reconduire 

31 

53 

Reteindre 

25 

53 

Ouvrir 

55 

56 

Reconnaitre 

20 

52 

Retenir 

84 

58 

Paitre 

58 

56 

Reconque'rir 

4 

51 

Retraire 

80 

58 

Paraitre 

20 

52 

Reconstruire 

31 

53 

Revaloir 

83 

58 

Parcourir 

23 

52 

Recoudre 

22 

52 

Revenir 

84 

58 

Parfaire 

40 

54 

Recourir 

23 

52 

Revetir 

85 

59 

Partir 

59 

56 

Recouvrir 

55 

56 

Revivre 

86 

59 

Parvenir 

84 

58 

R  e'er  ire 

36 

54 

Revoir 

87 

59 

Peindre 

25 

53 

Recroitre 

27 

53 

Rire 

71 

57 

Permettre 

49 

55 

Recueillir 

28 

53 

Rouvrir 

55 

56 

Plaindre 

25 

53 

Recuire 

31 

53 

Saillir1 

Plaire 

60 

56 

Redevenir 

84 

58 

Satisfaire 

40 

54 

1  Regular  likefinir,  except  the  third  person  pres.  ind.,  il  saille. 


LIST    OP   INFINITIVE    CONSTRUCTIONS. 


113 


NO. 

PAGE 

NO. 

PAGE 

NO.    PAGE. 

Savoir 

72 

57 

Soustraire 

80 

58 

Tenir 

84 

58 

Secourir 

23 

52 

Soutenir 

84 

58 

Traduire 

31 

53 

Se'duire 

31 

53 

Souvenir 

84 

58 

Traire 

80 

58 

S'en  aller 

6 

51 

Subvenir 

84 

58 

Transcrire 

36 

54 

Sentir 

47 

55 

Suffire 

77 

58 

Transmettre 

49 

55 

Seoir           73, 

74 

57 

Suivre 

78 

58 

Tressaillir 

81 

58 

Servir 

75 

57 

Surcroitre 

27 

53 

Vaincre 

82 

58 

Sortir 

47 

55 

Surfaire 

40 

54 

Valoir 

83 

58 

Souffrir 

55 

56 

Surprenflre 

64 

57 

Yenir 

84 

58 

Souloir  l 

Surseoir 

79 

58 

Vetir 

85 

59 

Souinettre 

49 

55 

Survenir 

84 

58 

Vivre 

86 

59 

Sourdre 

76 

58 

Survivre 

86 

59 

Yoir 

87 

59 

Sourire 

71 

57 

Taire 

60 

.56 

Vouloir 

88 

59 

Souscrire 

36 

54 

Teindre 

25 

53 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST   OF   INFINITIVE   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

WITHOUT    PREPOSITION,  OR  WITH  'A'  AND  '  DE  '  AFTER  VERBS. 

(See  pages  99-103.) 

Verbs  not  followed  by  a  preposition  are  marked  o ;  those 
taking  a  or  de  indifferently  are  followed  by  both  prepo- 
sitions. 


S?abaisser  a 
Aboutir  a 
Absoudre  de 
S'absoudre  de 
S'abstenir  de 
S'abuser  a 
Accorder  de 
S'accorder  a 
Accourir  o 

Accoutuine  (avoir)  de2 
Accoutumer  a 
S'accoutumer  a 


Accuser  de 
S'acharner  a 
Achever  de 
Admettre  a 
Admirer  de 
Affecter  de 
Affirmer  o 
S'affliger  de 
S'agir  de  (impers.) 
Aguerrir  a 
S'aguerrir  a 
Aider  a 


Aimer  a,  de,  o 

Aimer  autant  o 

Aimer  bien  o 

Aimer  mieux  o  (second 
term  of  the  com- 
parison takes  que  de) 

Aller  o 

Ambitionner  de 

Amener  a 

Amuser  a 

S'amuser  a 

Animer  a 


1E,are,  used  only  in  the  inf.  pres.  and  third  person  imp.  ind.,  il  soulait,  ils 
soulaient. 

2  Only  used  in  compound  tenses  in  the  sense  to  be  in  the   habit  of.     It  is 
exceptionally  found  conjugated  with.  &tre  and  de  in  the  same  meaning. 


114 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


Apercevoir  o 
S'apercevoir  de 
Appartenir  de  (imper.) 
Appeler  a 
Applaudir  de 
S'applaudir  de 
S'appliquer  a 
Appre"hender  de 
Apprendre  a 
S'appreter  a 
Arreter  de 
S'arreter  a 
Arriver  a 
Aspirer  a 
Assignor  a 
S'assujettir  a 
Assurer  o 
Astreindre  a 
S'astreindre  a 
S'attacher  a 
Attendre  de,  a 
S'attendre  a 
S'attrister  de 
Autoriser  a 
Avertir  de 
S'avilir  a 
S'aviser  de 
Avoir  a 
Avoir  beau  o 
N' avoir  garde  de 
Avoir  peine  a 
Avoir  peur  de 
Avoir  raison  de 
Avoir  tort l  de 
Avouer  o 
Balancer  a 
Blamer  de 
Se  blamer  de 
Borner  a 


Se  borner  a 
Bruler  de  (to  yearn  for) 
Cense"  (etre)  o 
Cesser  de 
Se  chagriner  de 
Charger  de 
Se  charger  de 
Chercher  a 
Choisir  de       f 
Citer  a 

Commander  de 
Commencer  a,  de 
Se  complaire  a 
Compter  o 
Conclure  de,  a 
Concourir  a 
Condamner  a 
Se  condamner  a 
Condescendre  a 
Se  conf  esser  de 
Conjurer  de 
Conseiller  de 
Consentir  a,  de 
Consister  a 
Consoler  de 
Se  consoler  de 
Conspirer  a 
Se  consumer  a 
Se  contenter  de 
Continuer  a,  de 
Contraindre,  a  de 
Contribuer  a 
Convaincre  de 
Convenir  de  (o  rare) 
Convenir  (imper.)  de 
Convier  &  (de  rare) 
Corriger  de 
Courir  o 
Couter  & 


En  couter  (imper.)  de 

Craindre  de 

Crier  de 

Croire  o 

Daigner  o 

Decider  de 

Decider  a  (to  cause  to 

decide) 
Se  decider  a 
Declarer  o 
De*daigner  de 
Se  de"faire  de 
D^fendre  de 
Defier  de  (to  dare) 
De"ner  &  (to  challenge) 
De"gouter  cle 
Deliberer  de 
Demander  a,  de 
Demeurer  a 
Se  de"pecher  de 
De"saccoutumer  de 
Se  d^saccoutumer  de 
De"sespe"rer  de 
De"shabituer  de 
Se  de'shabituer  de 
De"sirer  o,  de 
Se  de"soler  de 
Destiner  a 
Determiner  a,  de 
Se  determiner  & 
De"t ester  de 
Devoir  o  (ought) 
Devoir  de  (to  owe  it  to) 
De"vouer  a 
Differer  de 
Dire  o  (to  say) 
Dire  de  (to  tell) 
Discontinuer  de 
Disconvenir  de 


1  Similar  compounds  of  avoir  with  a  noun  take  de. 


LIST    OF   INFINITIVE   CONSTRUCTIONS. 


115 


Se  disculper  de 

S'e'puiser  a 

Former  a 

Dispenser  de 

Espe'rer  o,  de 

Se  former  a 

Disposer  a 

Essayer  de,  a 

Fre'mir  de 

Se  disposer  a 

S'  essay  er  a 

Gager  de 

Dissuader  de 

S7  Conner  de 

Gagner  de 

Se  divertir  a 

Etre  o  (to  go) 

Se  garder  de 

Donner  a 

fitre   a    (to   be   busy 

Ge'mir  de 

Douter  de 

with) 

Se  glorifier  de 

Eclater    de   (rire)    (to 

S'e'tudier  a 

Gronder  de 

burst  out  laughing) 

S'e'vertuer  a 

Habituer  a 

£couter  o 

Eviter  de 

S'habituer  a 

Ecrire  de 

Exceller  a 

Hair  a,  de,  o 

S'  (Miner  de 

Exciter  a 

Ne  pas  hair  de 

S'efforcer  de,  a 

S'  exciter  a 

Hasarder  de 

S'effrayer  de' 

Excuser  de 

Se  hasarder  a 

S'e'merveiller  de 

S'excuser  de 

Se  hater  de 

Empecher  de 

Exempter  de 

Hesiter  a,  de 

S'empecher  de 

Exercer  a 

S'imaginer  o 

Employer  a 

S'exercer  a 

Imputer  de 

S'employer  a 

Exhorter  a 

Inciter  a 

S'empresser  a,  de 

S'exposer  a 

Incliner  a 

Encourager  a 

Se  facher  de 

S'indigner  de 

S'encourager  a 

Faillir  o,  de 

Induire  a 

S'endurcir  a 

Eaire  o 

S'inge'rer  de 

Engager  a 

Faire   (avoir  beau 

S'inqui^ter  de 

S'  engager  a,  de 

faire)  o 

Inspirer  de 

S'enhardir  a 

Faire  bien  de 

S'inspirer  de 

Enjoindre  de 

Faire  mieux  de 

Instruire  a 

S'ennuyer  a,  de 

Faire  semblant  1  de 

Interdire  de 

S'enorgueillir  de 

Falloir  (imper.)  o 

Int^resser  a 

Enrager  de 

Se  fatiguer  a 

S'int  e'resser  a 

Enseigner  a 

Feindre  de 

Inviter  a 

Entendre  o 

Feliciter  de 

S'inviter  a 

S'  entendre  & 

Se  feliciter  de 

Juger  ne'cessaire  l  de 

S'enteter  a 

Se  figurer  o 

Juger  de,  o 

Entrainer  a 

Finir  de 

Justifier  de 

Entreprendre  de 

Se  flatter  de 

Se  justifier  de 

Entrevoir  o 

Forcer  a,  de 

Laisser   (to   let,   to 

Envoyer  o 

Se  forcer  a,  de 

cease)  o 

1  -Faire  and.  jug  er  take  de  in  similar  constructions. 


116 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


Ne  pas  laisser  de  (never- 
theless, for  all  that, 

yet) 

Laisser  a  (to  leave  to) 

Se  lasser  a,  de 

Limiter  a 

Se  limiter  a 

Louer  de 

Se  louer  de 

Mander  de 

Manquer  a  (to  be  re- 
miss in,  to  be  at  fault, 
against) 

Manquer  de  (to  omit, 
to  be  on  the  point  of) 

Me'diter  de 

Se  meler  de 

Menacer  de 

Mener  o 

Me"riter  de 

Mettre  a 

Se  mettre  a 

Montrer  a 

Mourir  de 

Ne"cessiter  a 

Negliger  de 

Nier  de,  o 

Obligerde,  a1 

S'obliger  a,  de 

Observer  o 

S'obstiner  a 

Obtenir  de 

Occuper  a,  de  (phys- 
ically busy) 

S'occuper  de,  a  (men- 
tally busy) 

Offrir  de 

S'offrir  a 

Omettre  de 


S'opiniatrer  a 

Ordonner  de 

Oser  o 

Oublier  de,  a 

Oui'r  o 

Paraitre  o 

Pardonner  de 

Parier  de 

Parler  de 

Parvenir  a 

Passer  le  temps  a 

Se  passer  de 

Pencher  a 

Penser  o  (to  intend,  to 

plan,  to  come  near) 
Penser  a  (to  think),  de 
(to  have  an  opinion  of) 
Perdre  a 
Permettre  de 
Perse've'rer  a 
Persister  a 
Persuader  de 
Se  piquer  de 
Plaindre  de 
Se  plaindre  de 
Se  plaire  a 
Se  plier  a 

Porter  a  (to  induce) 
Se  porter  a 
Pourvoir  o 
Pousser  a 
Prefe"rer  o,  de 
Prendre    garde   a   (to 

pay  attention  to) 
Prendre  garde  de  (to 

beware  not  to) 
Prendre  soin  de 
Pre'parer  a 
Se  preparer  a 


Prescrire  de 

Presser  de 

Se  presser  de 

Pre"sumer  de 

Pre"tenclre  o  (to  intend, 
to  mean) 

Pr^tendre  a  (to  have 
pretention  to,  to  as- 
pire to) 

Prier  de 

Prof esser  de 

Profiter  de 

Pro jeter  de 

Promettre  de 

Se  promettre  de 

Proposer  de 

Se  proposer  de 

Protester  de 

Provoquer  a 

Punir  de 

Rappeler  de 

Se  rappeler  o,  de 

Se  rassassier  de 

Rebuter  de 

Se  rebuter  de 

Recommander  de 

Se  recommander  de 

Recommencer  a 

Re'compenser  de 

Reconnaitre  o,  de 

Redouter  de 

Require  a 

Refuser  de 

Se  refuser  a 

Regarder  o 

Regretter  de 

Se  rejouir  de 

Remercier  de 

Rendre  grace  de 


1  Obliger  in  the  passive  requires  de,  it  also  requires  de  in  the  sense  of  to  do  the 
pleasure  of. 


LIST    OF   INFINITIVE    CONSTRUCTIONS. 


117 


Renoncer  & 

Rentrer  o 

Se  repentir  de 

Reprendre  de 

Rdprimander  de 

Reprocher  de 

Se  reprocher  de 

Re"pugner  a 

Requerir  de 

Se  re'signer  a 

Resoudre  a  (to  induce 
somebody  to) 

Resoudre  de  (to  re- 
solve) 

Resoudre  (passive)  a,de 

Se  re'soudre  (to  deter- 
mine) a  (de  rare) 

Se  ressouvenir  de 

Rester  a 

Retenir  de 

Se  retenir  de 

Retourner  o 

Re"ussir  a 

Revenir  o  (to  come 
back) 

Revenir  de  (to  have 
just  come  from) 

R£ver  de,  a 

Rire  de 

Risquer  de 

Se  risquer  a 


Rougir  de 

Savoir  o 

Se  scandaliser  de 

Sembler  o 

Sentir  o 

Se  sentir  o 

Seoir  o  (to  behoove, 
to  become) 

Servir  a 

Solliciter  de  (a  rare) 

Sommer  de 

Songer  a 

Se  soucier  de 

Souffrir  de  (a  rare) 

Souhaiter  o,  de 

Soumettre  a 

Se  soumettre  a 

Soup§onner  de 

Soutenir  o 

Se  souvenir  de 

Suffire  a  (sufficient  un- 
to) de  (to  be  enough) 

Sugge"rer  de 

Supplier  de 

Surprendre  a 

Tacher  de,  a 

Tarder  a,  de 

Tarder  (imper.)  de 

Temoigner  o 

Tendre  a 

Tenir  a 


Se  tenir  de 
Tenter  de 
Travaillcr  a 
Trembler  de  (a  rare) 
Trouver  a  (to  find) 
Trouver   o   (to    think, 

to  estimate) 
Trouver   bon,   mal  de 

(to  think  well  or  ill  of) 
Se  trouver  o 
Se  trouver  bien,   mal 

de  (to  find  one's  self 

well  or  badly  off  for) 
Se  tuer  a 
Valoir  mieux  (imper.) 

o    (second    part    of 

comparison   takes 

que  de) 
Se  vanter  de 
Se  venger  de 
Yenir  o  (to  come) 
Venir  a  (to  happen) 
En  venir  a  (to   come 

to  the  point  of) 
Venir  de  (to  have  just) 
Viser  a 
Voir  o 
Se  voir  o 
Se  vouer  a 
Vouloir  o 


FRENCH-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


A,  prep.,  to;  at;  in;  for;  of; 
after  ;  as,  as  a  ;  by  ;  with  ;  ac- 
cording to,  etc.  (See  grammar.) 

abaisser,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  let  down,  to 
lower ;  to  diminish,  to  reduce  ; 
to  abase,  to  debase;  [s> — ],  to 
fall,  to  sink ;  to  slope,  to  de- 
cline ;  to  humble  one's  self  ;  to 
stoop. 

abandonner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  aban- 
don, to  quit,  to  leave,  to  desert, 
to  forsake  ;  to  give  up,  to  give 
over ;  to  deliver  up ;  to  let 
loose,  let  go  ;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  give  one's  self  up  to  ;  to  in- 
dulge in  ;  to  give  way  to. 

abeille,  n.  f. ,  bee. 

abnegation,  n.  f. ,  abnegation,  re- 
nunciation, sacrifice. 

abois,  n.  m.  plu.,  despairing  con- 
dition, distress  ;  aux  abois  — 
at  bay,  "hard  up." 

aborder,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  come  near, 
to  come  to,  to  come  up  with ; 
to  accost;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
arrive  at ;  to  land  ;  [s' — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  run  foul  of  each  other  ; 
to  come  up  with  another. 

aboutir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  join,  to  bor- 
der upon  ;  to  meet ;  to  come 
to  ;  to  end  in. 


abrite',  adj.,  sheltered. 

absolu,  adj. ,  absolute  ;  arbitrary, 
despotic,  unlimited ;  positive, 
unconditional. 

absorber,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  absorb,  to 
swallow  up,  to  drown  ;  to  con- 
sume, to  waste  ;  to  occupy  ;  to 
take  up. 

absoudre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  absolve,  to 
free ;  to  acquit,  to  clear,  to  par- 
don ;  to  remit  sins,  to  give  ab- 
solution. (See  page  50,  1.) 

absous,  adj.,  absolved. 

s'abstenir,  v.  r.  irr.,  to  abstain, 
to  refrain,  to  forbear,  to  forego. 

abstraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  separate, 
to  abstract,  to  draw  from. 

abuser,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  misuse,  to 
abuse,  to  use  ill,  to  misemploy ; 
[ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  cheat,  to  de- 
ceive, to  delude,  to  gull;  [s* — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  mistake,  to  be 
mistaken. 

accident,  n.  m.,  accident,  incident. 

accompagner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  accom- 
pany, to  wait  on,  to  attend  ;  to 
be  of  the  retinue,  to  follow  ;  to 
match,  to  suit  with  ;  to  add. 

accompli,  adj.,  accomplished,  fin- 
ished, fulfilled;  complete;  fault- 
less, perfect. 


120 


VOCABULARY. 


accorder,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  grant,  to 
allow,  to  accord,  to  give,  to  be- 
stow, to  admit,  to  make  friends; 
(gram.)  to  make  agree;  (raits.) 
to  tune  ;  [s' — ],  to  agree,  to  suit, 
to  correspond;  to  join,  to  concur. 

accourir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  hasten,  to 
run  to,  to  flock  together ;  to  run 
forward. 

accoutumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  accus- 
tom, to  use,  to  habituate ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg. ,  to  use,  to  be  wont ; 
[s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  accustom,  to 
become  accustomed. 

accroire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  believe. 
(See  page  58,  2.) 

accroitre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  increase,  to 
enlarge  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.,  to  increase, 
to  augment;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  increase,  to  grow,  to  be 
augmented  or  advanced.  (See 
page  51,  3.) 

accueillir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  receive,  to 
make  welcome,  to  assail,  to 
overtake.  (See  page  53,  28.) 

accuse",  n.  ra.,  accused,  prisoner, 
culprit. 

accuser,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  accuse  of ; 
to  charge  with ;  to  indict,  to  im- 
peach ;  to  reproach  ;  to  blame, 
to  accuse  ;  to  mention,  to  give 
notice. 

Achab,  n.  ra.,  Ahab,  king  of 
Israel  (007-888  B.C.). 

acharner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rouse,  to  em- 
bitter, to  envenom ;  [s> — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  be  intent,  bent,  set  upon; 
to  be  infuriated,  implacable. 

acheminer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  go  for- 
ward, to  send  on  ;  [s* — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  set  out  or  forward,  to 


take  one's  way  ;  to  begin  one's 
journey  ;  to  get  on. 

acheter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  buy,  to  pur- 
chase. 

achever,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  finish,  to 
close,  to  end,  to  conclude,  to 
terminate,  to  perfect ;  to  dis- 
patch ;  to  achieve. 

Achille,  n.  m.,  Achilles,  a  Greek 
hero,  son  of  Peleus  and  of 
Thetis ;  killed  by  Paris  at  the 
siege  of  Troy. 

acier,  n.  m.,  steel. 

acque"rir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  acquire,  to 
purchase,  to  buy,  to  obtain  ;  to 
get,  to  attain,  to  gain.  (See 
page  51,  4.) 

actif,  adj.  ra.,  active,  alert. 

action,  n.  /.,  action,  act,  agency, 
operation,  virtue,  motion ;  deed, 
feat,  perform  ance ;  gesture,  post- 
ure ;  engagement,  battle ;  plea  ; 
share. 

activit^,  n.  f. ,  activity,  action ; 
employment ;  expedition. 

adage,  n.  ra. ,  adage,  proverb ; 
saying. 

adapter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  apply,  to 
adapt,  to  suit ;  to  fit. 

adieu,  adv. ,  adieu,  farewell,  good- 
bye. 

admettre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  admit,  to 
receive,  to  give  admittance  ;  to 
allow,  to  suppose  ;  to  suffer. 
(See  page  55,  44.) 

admirable,  adj.,  admirable. 

admirablement,  adv.,  admirably, 

admiration,  n.  /.,  admiration,  won- 
der, marvel. 

admirer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  admire,  to 
wonder  at. 


VOCABULARY. 


121 


admonestation,  n.f.,  admonition, 
reprimand. 

adolescent,  adj.,  adolescent,  youth, 
lad,  lass. 

adorer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  adore,  to 
worship  ;  to  have  a  passionate 
love  for. 

adresse,  n.  /.,  speech  ;  direction, 
address ;  skill,  dexterity,  ex- 
pertness,  cleverness,  ingenuity, 
shrewdness,  cunning. 

adresser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  direct,  to 
address  ;  [s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be 
directed,  to  address  one's  self, 
to  apply,  to  make  application. 

advenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  occur,  to 
happen.  (See  page  58,  84.) 

affecte*,  adj.,  affected. 

affecter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  affect,  to  ap- 
propriate, to  destine;  [s> — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  be  affected,  to  be  moved. 

affirmer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  affirm,  to 
assert,  to  assure ;  to  confirm 
with  an  oath. 

affliger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  afflict,  to  grieve. 
to  vex,  to  trouble  ;  to  mortify ; 
[s9 — ],  v.r.reg.,  to  be  concerned; 
to  be  afflicted,  troubled,  cast 
down,  sorrowful ;  to  fret. 

affluent,  n.  m.,  tributary  stream. 

affranchir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  set  free, 
to  free,  to  enfranchise,  to  give 
liberty ;  to  make  free ;  to  ex- 
empt, to  discharge;  to  deliver;  to 
pay  the  carriage  of;  to  prepay; 
[s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  rid  one's  self 
of,  to  free  one's  self,  to  get  free, 
to  shake  off,  to  break  through. 

affreux,  adj.,  frightful,  hideous, 
horrible,  fearful,  horrid,  ghastly. 

affronter,  v.  a,  reg.^to  brave, to  face, 


afin,  conj. ,  in  order ;  so ;  that ;  so 
that;  afin  de — so  that. 

afin  que,  conj. ,  loc. ,  to  ;  in  order 
to ;  that ;  so  that. 

Af  rique,  n.  f. ,  Africa. 

£ge,  n.  m.,  age;  years;  genera- 
tion, century,  period,  time. 

age*,  adj.,  aged,  elderly,  old. 

aggraver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  aggravate, 
to  augment ;  to  make  worse. 

agile,  adj.,  agile,  active,  nimble. 

agilite*,  n.  /.,  agility,  activity, 
nimbleness. 

agir,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  act,  to  operate ; 
to  have  influence ;  to  sue ;  to 
behave;  [V — ],  v.  r.  imp.  reg., 
to  be  in  question;  to  be  the 
matter. 

agitation,  n.f.,  agitation;  tossing, 
shaking;  trouble,  disturbance, 
emotion ;  uneasiness. 

agiter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  agitate,  to 
put  in  motion,  to  move ;  to 
shake,  to  heave,  to  jolt ;  to 
swing;  to  disturb,  to  dispute, 
to  debate,  to  torment;  [s' — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  be  agitated,  or  in 
movement;  to  get  rough;  to 
be  restless,  disturbed,  uneasy ; 
to  stir,  to  struggle ;  to  be  de- 
bated. 

agitable,  adj.,  agreeable, pleasant, 
pleasing. 

agre*ment,  n.  m.,  liking,  consent; 
accomplishment,  agreeableness; 
pleasure,  charming  ornament; 
advantages,  amusement. 

aguerrir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  train  up  in, 
to  inure  to  the  hardships  of  war, 
to  accustom  to  war ;  [s> — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  grow  warlike  or  martial. 


122 


VOCABULARY. 


aider,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  aid,  help, 
relieve,  assist,  [s* — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  help  one  another,  to  make 
use  of  ;  to  bestir  one's  self. 

aieul,  n.  m.,  grandfather,  ances- 
tor. 

aieuls,  n.  m.  plu.,  grandparents. 

a'ieule,  n.  /.,  grandmother,  ances- 
tress. 

a'ieux,  n.  m.  plu.,  forefathers,  an- 
cestors. 

aigu,  adj.,  pointed,  sharp,  keen, 
acute,  piercing. 

ail,  n.  m.,  garlic. 

aile,  7i.  /. ,  wing,  pinion. 

aimable,  adj.,  amiable,  lovely, 
agreeable. 

aimer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  love,  to  be 
fond  of,  to  have  a  passion  for ; 
to  have  a  fancy  for,  to  admire, 
to  delight  in,  to  have  an  inclina- 
tion for. 

aimer  mieux,  to  prefer,  to  like 
better.  (See  aimer.) 

ainsi,  adv.,  thus,  so,  in  this,  that 
manner. 

ainsi  que,  conj.  loc. ,  as  well  as ; 
even  as. 

air,  n.  m.,  air;  wind;  look;  ap- 
pearance ;  manner,  way  ;  tune. 

aise*,  adj.,  easy,  convenient, 
commodious ;  in  easy  circum- 
stances. 

Aix,  n.  m. ,  name  of  several  cities, 
and  of  a  small  island. 

ajouter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  add,  to  join ; 
to  subjoin,  to  supply,  to  inter- 
polate. 

Alembert  (d'),  eminent  mathema- 
tician, one  of  the  authors  of 
the  EncycloptMe  (1717-1783), 


Alexandre,  n.  m.,  Alexander  the 
Great,  King  of  Macedonia,  and 
conqueror  of  Asia  (356-323  B.C.). 

aligner,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  lay  out  by  a 
line ;  to  square ;  to  put  in  a 
straight  line,  to  dress. 

alle*gorie,  n.  f. ,  allegory. 

alle*gresse,  n.  /.,  mirth,  cheerful- 
ness, gladness,  joy,  joy  fulness. 

aller,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  go,  to  advance, 
to  be  in  motion ;  to  depart,  to 
resort ;  to  do ;  to  be  ;  to  reach  ; 
to  succeed ;  to  act ;  to  go  about, 
to  tend,  to  aim  ;  to  amount ;  to 
fit,  to  become,  to  be  matched ; 
to  ride,  to  drive,  to  sail ;  (/am.) 
va,  allons,  allez  —  well,  come, 
cheer  up,  fie,  etc.  (See  page 
51,  5.)  [s'en — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
go  away,  to  depart,  to  run 
away,  to  dwindle  away,  to 
evaporate,  to  wear  out,  to  die. 
(See  page  51,  6.) 

allie*,  p.  p. ,  allied,  related. 

alors,  adv. ,  then,  at  that  time. 

Alpes,  n.  /.  plu. ,  Alps. 

Alphe"e,  n.  m.,  Alpheus. 

altier,  adj.,  haughty,  proud,  arro- 
gant, lordly,  lofty,  stately. 

amabilite*,  n.  f. ,  amiability. 

amant,  n.  m.,  amante,/.,  lover, 
wooer,  suitor ;  sweetheart,  mis- 
tress; votary. 

Ambert  (Joachim -Marie -Jean- 
Jacques- Alexandre- Jules),  gen- 
eral and  author.  Born  at  La 
Grezette  in  1804. 

ambitieux,  adj.,  ambitious. 

ambition,  n.  f. ,  ambition. 

ambitionner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  desire 
earnestly,  to  be  ambitious  of. 


VOCABULARY. 


123 


ame,  n.  f.,  soul. 

amelioration,  n.  f.,  amelioration, 
improvement,  mending. 

amen,  n.  m.,  amen,  be  it  so. 

amener,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  bring,  to 
bring  in,  up,  over,  about, 
round,  on ;  to  fetch  ;  to  intro- 
duce; to  prevail  upon;  to  induce. 

ame"nite,  n.  f. ,  amenity,  pleasant- 
ness. 

amer,  adj.,  bitter. 

Am^ricam,  n.  m.,  American. 

amSricain,  adj.,  American. 

Ame'rique,  n.  /.,  America. 

ami,  n.  m.,  friend. 

amitie*,  n.  f.,  friendship,  affec- 
tion, good-will ;  favor,  kind- 
ness ;  plu. ,  kind  regards,  com- 
pliments. 

amour,  n.  m.,  love;  pi  /.,  one's 
love,  flame;  delight. 

amusement,  n.  m.,  amusement. 

amuser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  amuse,  to 
divert;  to  entertain,  to  re- 
create ;  to  trifle  with ;  [s' — ],  v. 
r.  reg.,  to  amuse  one's  self,  to 
disport,  to  tarry,  to  stay;  to 
trifle. 

an,  n.  m.,  year,  twelvemonth, 
par  an — a  year ;  deux  fois  par 
an — twice  a  year. 

ancien,  adj.,  old,  ancient ;  former. 

anciennete",  n.  f.,  ancientness, 
primitiveness ;  seniority. 

ancre,  n.  f. ,  anchor,  brace. 

ane,  n.  m.,  ass,  donkey,  block- 
head, fool. 

Anglais,  n.  m.,  Englishman. 

anglais,  adj.,  English. 

Angleterre,  n.  f. ,  England. 

animal,  n.  m,,  animal. 


animer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  animate,  to 
give  life ;  to  stir  up,  to  excite ; 
to  provoke,  to  exasperate. 

anne*e,  n.  f. ,  year. 

Annette,  n.  f. ,  Annette,  Annetta. 

annoncer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  announce, 
to  tell,  to  declare,  to  inform,  to 
proclaim ;  to  usher  in  ;  to  pub- 
lish, to  give  out,  to  preach ;  to 
foretell,  to  forebode ;  to  show, 
to  promise  ;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
present  one's  self. 

ante*rieur,  adj.,  anterior. 

antique,  adj.,  antique,  ancient,  old. 

apercevoir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  perceive, 
to  discover,  to  discern;  to  re- 
mark, to  observe;  [s* — ],  v.  r. 
a.  reg. ,  to  perceive  ;  to  remark ; 
to  be  aware  of. 

apparaitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  appear, 
to  be  in  sight,  to  come.  (See 
page  52,  20.) 

apparoir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  be  evident. 
(See  page  51,  7.) 

appartenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  belong, 
to  appertain  ;  to  relate,  to  con- 
cern. 

appeler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  call,  to 
name,  to  appeal,  to  summon; 
to  invoke  ;  to  challenge ;  [ — ] , 
v.  n.  reg.,  to  appeal ;  [s> — ],  v. 
r.  reg. ,  to  be  called,  named. 

appe"tit,  n.  m.,  appetite, 

applaudir,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  ap- 
plaud, to  clap  the  hands,  to 
cheer ;  to  praise,  commend,  ap- 
prove; [s> — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  ap- 
plaud one's  self,  to  glory  in. 

applaudissement,  n.  m.,  applause; 
plaudits,  cheering. 

application,  n.  f. ,  application. 


124 


VOCABULARY. 


appliquer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  apply,  to 
stick ;  to  employ ;  to  apply  to, 
[s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  apply  one's 
self,  to  fall  to,  to  set  to,  to  take 
to,  to  labor  at,  to  make  it  one's 
study. 

apporter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  bring ;  to 
bring  forward ;  to  cause,  to 
occasion;  to  use,  to  cite,  to 
quote ;  to  produce. 

appre*cier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  value,  to 
rate,  to  estimate ;  to  appreciate, 
to  esteem. 

appre"hender,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  appre- 
hend, to  be  apprehensive  of,  to 
fear,  to  arrest,  to  take  up. 

apprendre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  learn,  to 
be  informed  of ;  to  hear  of ;  to 
teach,  to  inform  of.  (See  page 
57,  64.) 

appreter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  prepare, 
to  get  ready ;  to  cook ;  to  dress ; 
to  afford  matter  for;  [s> — ],  v. 
r.  reg.,  to  prepare  one's  self; 
to  .be  in  course  of  prepara- 
tion. 

approche,  n.  f.,  approach. 

approcher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  bring, 
put  or  draw  near;  to  draw 
close;  to  have  access;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  reg.,  to  approach;  to  draw 
near;  to.  come  near;  to  be 
something  like;  [s* — ],  v.  r.reg., 
to  draw  near ;  to  approach,  to 
advance. 

approuve*,  approved.  (See  page  88.) 

approuver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  approve, 
to  approve  of,  to  consent  to ; 
to  ratify,  to  authorize. 

approximation,  n.  /.,  approxi- 
mation. 


apres,  prep.,  after, next  to;  about; 
next. 

apres,  adv.,  afterwards. 

apres  que,  conj.  loc.,  after,  when. 

arbitre,  n.  m.,  will;  arbiter,  arbi- 
trator, umpire;  master,  sover- 
eign, disposer;  libre  arbitre  — 
free  will. 

arbre,  n.  m.,  tree. 

arcade,  n.  f. ,  arcade,  arch. 

arc-en-ciel,  n.  m.,  rainbow. 

archange,  n.  m.,  archangel. 

architecte,  n.  m.,  architect. 

architecture,  n.  f. ,  architecture. 

arpon,  n.  m.,  saddle-bow,  bow. 

ardemment,  adv.,  ardently. 

ardeur,  n.  f. ,  ardor,  warmth,  pas- 
sion. 

argent,  n.  m. ,  silver,  money,  cash. 

argente",  adj.,  plated,  silvered  over, 
silvery,  silver,  snowy. 

arguer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  accuse ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  argue;  to 
conclude,  to  infer. 

argutie,  n.  f.,  quibble. 

aride,  adj.,  arid,  dry,  sterile. 

aristocratic,  n.  f.,  aristocracy. 

arme,  n.  f.,  arm,  weapon,  (plu.) 
arms,  coat  of  arms,  hatchment ; 
en  armes  —  to  be  armed,  or  up 
in  arms. 

arme*e,  n.  f.,  army. 

Arnauld   (Antoine),   one  of    the 
most  able  writers  of  the  17th 
century.      He  was  surnamed 
«Le   Grand"  Arnauld   (1612- 
1694.) 

arreter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  arrest,  to 
stop,  to  stay ;  to  fasten ;  to 
delay,  to  detain,  to  hinder, 
to  impede ;  to  take  into  cus- 


VOCABULARY. 


125 


tody ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  stand 
still;  to  make  a  stay;  [s> — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  stop,  to  halt;  to 
loiter  ;  to  suspend ;  to  be  con- 
cluded. 

arriver,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  arrive,  to 
approach ;  to  land ;  to  happen, 
to  chance,  to  come  to  pass ;  to 
reach. 

arroser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  water,  to 
irrigate,  to  besprinkle,  to  wet ; 
to  bedew;  to  soak;  to  bathe 
(with  tears). 

art,  n.  m.,  art. 

artiste,  n.  m.  /.,  artist,  player, 
performer. 

artistique,  adj.,  artistic. 

assaillir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  assault,  to 
assail,  to  surprise,  to  come 
upon,  to  attack. 

Asie,  n.f.,  Asia. 

aspect,  n.  m. ,  aspect,  sight ;  look, 
countenance ;  phase,  point  of 
view. 

asperge,  n.  f. ,  asparagus. 

aspirer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  inspire ;  to 
inhale  ;  to  suck  in ;  (gram.)  to 
aspirate  ;  aspirer  a,  v.  n.  reg., 
to  aspire,  to  covet,  to  aim  at. 

assaillant,  n.  m.,  assailant. 

assembled,  n.  /.,  assembly,  meet- 
ing, company ;  party. 

asseoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  seat;  to  set 
or  put  in  a  chair  ;  to  lay,  to  fix, 
to  establish;  to  pitch;  to  settle; 
f aire  asseoir  a  table  —  to  admit 
to  one's  table. 

asservir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  enslave,  to 
reduce  to  servitude,  to  subject  ; 
to  enslave,  to  enthral ;  to  mas- 
ter, to  subdue,  to  conquer, 


assez,  adv.,  enough,  sufficiently; 
pretty,  rather ;  c'est  assez,  v. 
imper.,  it  is  sufficient,  enough. 

assieger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  besiege,  to 
lay  siege  to ;  to  surround ;  to 
beset. 

assigner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  assign ;  to 
appoint;  to  summon;  to  sub- 
poena ;  to  allot. 

assister,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  be  present, 
to  be  at,,  to  attend  ;  [ — ],  v.  a. 
reg. ,  to  assist,  to  help,  to  aid. 

assujettir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  subdue; 
to  bring  into  subjection ;  to 
fetter ;  to  fix ;  to  fasten  ;  to 
make  steady  ;  [s> — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  subject  one's  self. 

assurer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  assure,  to 
affirm  ;  to  secure ;  to  guaran- 
tee, to  fix  firmly  ;  to  insure  ; 
to  promise;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  secure,  to  ascertain,  to  be 
assured,  to  be  convinced ;  to 
be  persuaded. 

astreindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  force,  to 
compel;  to  bind  down;  to  oblige. 

atome,  n.  m.,  atom,  corpuscle. 

attacher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  attach,  to 
fasten,  tie,  bind ;  to  connect ; 
to  fix,  to  stick ;  to  affix  ;  to 
suspend,  to  hang ;  to  link,  to 
chain ;  to  bind,  to  endear,  to 
interest;  [s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
take  hold,  to  fasten  on  or  to  ; 
to  cling,  to  cleave  ;  to  adhere  ; 
to  have  affection  for. 

attaque,  n.  f. ,  attack  ;  onset ;  as- 
sault ;  fit. 

attaquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  attack,  to 
assault ;  to  begin  ;  [s' — ],  v.  r. 
reg, ,  to  attack,  to  challenge. 


126 


VOCABULARY. 


atteindre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  reach,  to 
come  at,  to  touch  ;  to  attain,  to 
compass. 

atteler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hitch,  to  yoke. 

en  attendant,  adv.,  in  the  mean- 
time, meanwhile. 

en  attendant  que,  conj.  Zoc.,  till 
until. 

attendre,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  wait  for ;  to 
tarry  for  ;  to  look  forward  to  ; 
to  expect,  to  await ;  to  attend  ; 
[s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  rely  upon,  to 
count  on,  to  trust,  to  expect ; 
to  look  forward  to;  to  antici- 
pate. 

attendrir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  make 
tender,  to  soften  ;  to  touch  ;  to 
move,  to  affect ;  [s' — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  grow  tender,  to  be 
moved ;  to  melt,  to  pity,  to 
relent,  to  soften. 

attendu,  prep.,  considering,  on 
account  of,  in  consideration  of. 
(See  also  page  88.) 

attendu  que,  conj.  loc.,  seeing 
that,  as,  in,  for,  as  much  as. 

attentif,  adj.,  attentive. 

attention,  n.  f. ,  attention,  care ; 
attentiveness  ;  vigilance  ;  re- 
gard, respect,  consideration. 

attirer,  v.  r.  a.  reg. ,  to  attract,  to 
draw ;  to  incite ;  to  bring  over, 
to  win  or  gain  over ;  to  lure ; 
to  entice,  to  wheedle;  [s> — ],  v. 
r.  reg.,  to  draw  down  upon  one ; 
to  incur,  to  attract ;  to  win,  to 
gain,  to  get. 

attraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  allure,  to 
entice. 

attrister,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  make  sad ; 
to  grieve;  to  trouble,  to  afflict; 


!>'—],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  grieve;  to 
yield  to  sorrow  ;  to  be  sad. 

au,  (contraction  of  a  le),  art.,  to 
the.  (See  a.) 

auberge,  n.  f.,  inn. 

aucun,  adj.,  not  any,  none,  no 
one;  no. 

audace,  n.  f.,  audacity,  insolence, 
assurance,  daring,  boldness. 

audacieux,  adj.,  audacious,  daring; 
impudent,  insolent ;  presumpt- 
uous, bold ;  high-spirited,  en- 
terprising. 

au  dela,  prep.,  on  the  other  side, 
beyond. 

augmenter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  aug- 
ment, to  increase,  to  enlarge, 
to  grow,  to  multiply. 

aujourd'hui,  adv.,  to-day,  this  day; 
nowadays,  now,  at  present. 

aupres,  adv.,  near. 

aupres  de,  prep,  loc.,  near,  by  ; 
close  to  ;  close  by ;  near  to ; 
with,  in,  over ;  to,  in  compari- 
son with. 

auquel,  rel.  pr.     (See  lequel.) 

aussi,  adv.,  too,  also,  as  much. 

aussi,  conj.,  therefore,  but  then  ; 
aussi  bien  —  for,  and  the  more 
so  as ;  as  well. 

aussi  bien  que,  conj.  loc.,  as  well  as. 

aussitot,  adv.,  immediately,  di- 
rectly. 

aussitdt  que,  conj.  loc.,  as  soon 
as,  whenever. 

austere,  adj.,  austere,  severe, 
stern,  grave ;  harsh. 

autant,  adv. ,  as  much,  as  many  ; 
as  far. 

autant  que,  conj.  loc.,  as,  as  far 
as,  as  much  as,  as  long  as. 


VOCABULARY. 


127 


auteur,  n.  m.,  author,  inventor, 
maker ;  cause. 

autocratic,  n.  /.,  autocracy. 

autoriser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  authorize, 
to  empower ;  to  legalize ;  to 
warrant;  [V — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
get  or  gain  authority. 

autorite*,  n.  f.,  authority,  power, 
sway ;  credit ;  weight,  consider- 
ation. 

autour,  prep.,  about,  round, 
around. 

autre,  indef.  pro. ,  other,  another, 
else. 

autre,  indef.  adj.,  other,  different, 
another. 

autrefois,  adv.,  formerly,  in  for- 
mer times ;  of  old. 

aux  (plu.  of  au),  art.,  to  the. 
(See  use  of  the  article  in  the 
gram.) 

Auxerre,  n.  m.,  an  old  French 
city  of  18,000  inhabitants. 

avarice*,  part.,  advanced;  for- 
ward, early  ;  late  (of  the  hour.) 

avancer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  advance,  to 
bring  forward  ;  to  hasten  ;  to 
forward ;  to  assert,  to  hold 
forth;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  ad- 
vance, to  get  on,  to  march  on, 
to  move  forward ;  to  get  out ; 
to  lean  over ;  to  progress,  to 
improve,  to  thrive,  to  rise. 

avant,  n.  m. ,  prow,  head,  bow  of 
a  ship. 

avant,  adv.,  far,  deep,  forward, 
far  advanced. 

avant,  prep.,  before  (time,  order)  • 
en  avant  de  —  in  front  of. 

avant-hier,  adv.  and  n.  m.,  day 
before  yesterday. 


avant  que,  con/,  loc.,  before. 

avantage,  n.  m.,  advantage,  bene- 
fit, interest ;  behalf. 

avec,  prep.,  with,  together  with  ; 
among. 

avenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  chance,  to 
come  to  pass,  to  happen. 

avenir,  n.  m. ,  future  ;  future  ex- 
istence ;  future  welfare,  hopes, 
prospects. 

aventure,  n.  f. ,  adventure. 

aversion,  n.  f.,  aversion,  hate, 
hatred  ;  antipathy,  dislike. 

avertir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  warn,  to 
caution,  to  inform  of,  to  give 
notice  of,  to  admonish. 

aveu,  n.  m.,  avowal,  confession, 
acknowledgment. 

avide,  adj.,  greedy,  eager,  de- 
sirous ;  voracious ;  rapacious, 
covetous. 

avilir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  debase,  to 
disgrace,  to  vilify  ;  to  dispar- 
age, to  depreciate  ;  to  lower ; 
[s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  undervalue 
one's  self,  to  grow  contemp- 
tible ;  to  cheapen. 

avis,  n.  m.,  opinion,  sentiment, 
mind,  judgment ;  advice,  coun- 
sel ;  notice  ;  warning,  caution  ; 
information,  intelligence,  news; 
motion  ;  advertisement ;  etre 
d'avis  —  to  think,  to  judge. 

aviser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  apprise; 
to  perceive;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
-  to  consider,  see,  think  ;  [s* — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  think  of;  to  take 
in  one's  head  ;  to  bethink  one's 
self. 

avocat,  n.  m.,  counsellor,  barris- 
ter, advocate,  lawyer. 


128 


VOCABULARY. 


avoine,  n.  /.,  oats. 

avoir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  have ;  to  get ; 

to   be ;    to    be    worth ;    to    be 

the  matter  with ;   to  have  on  ; 

il  y  a,  imp.,  there    is,   there 

are. 


avoir  beau  faire  (see  avoir),  to 

have  done  in  vain, 
avouer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  confess,  to 

avow;  to  own, to  acknowledge, 

to  allow  ;  to  approve. 
avril,  n.  m.,  April. 


B. 


Babil,  n.  m.,  chattering,  prattle. 

Babylone,  n.  f.,  Babylon. 

bagage,  n.  m.,  luggage,  baggage. 

Bailly  (Jean-Sylvian),  illustrious 
savant,  author  of  VHistoire  de 
V Astronomic,  etc.,  was  Presi- 
dent of  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly, Mayor  of  Paris,  and  died 
on  the  scaffold  in  1793. 

baisser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  lower,  to 
let  down,  to  bring  down;  to 
droop ;  to  lower,  to  strike; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  lower,  to  be 
on  the  decline,  to  wane ;  to 
flag,  to  droop  ;  to  fall ;  to  fail ; 
to  decay,  to  ebb ;  to  wear ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  stoop ;  to 
bow  down,  to  be  lowered. 

bal,  n.  m.,  ball. 

balancer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  balance ; 
to  swing ;  to  rock ;  to  square 
(accounts);  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
balance,  to  hesitate,  to  waver, 
to  demur. 

Barbier  (Augusts),  French  poet, 
author  of  the  lambes  (1805-82). 

bas,  adj.,  low,  shallow;  vile, 
mean  ;  abject ;  inferior. 

bataillon,  n.  m.,  battalion;  squad- 
ron. 

bateau,  n.  m.,  boat. 

batir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  build,  to  raise, 
to  erect;  to  found;  to  construct. 


battre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  beat,  to  strike, 
to  bang,  to  whip ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg. ,  to  beat,  to  pant,  to  throb ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  fight,  to 
combat,  to  scuffle. 

Bayonne,  n.  f. ,  Bayomie. 

Beatrix,  n.  f. ,  Beatrice. 

beau,  n.  m. ,  belle,  /. ,  beauty  ; 
beau  ;  belle  ;  charmer. 

beau,  or  bel,  -le,  adj. ,  (bel  before 
m.  nouns  in  the  sing,  beginning 
with  a  vowel  or  an  h  mute), 
beautiful,  fine,  lovely,  hand- 
some ;  fair ;  glorious ;  lofty, 
noble  ;  il  fait  beau  —  it  is  fine 
(weather) ;  avoir  beau  —  in  vain; 
avoir  beau  dire  —  to  speak  in 
vain. 

beaucoup,  adv. ,  many,  much ; 
a  great  many,  a  great  deal ; 
deeply;  considerably;  de  beau- 
coup —  by  far;  c'est  beaucoup, 
v.  imper.,  it,  that  is  a  good  deal. 

Beaumarchais  (Caron  de),  author 
of  "'le  Barbier  de  Seville,"  and 
"le  Manage  de  Figaro'1'1  (1732- 
1799). 

beaute*,  n.f.,  beauty. 

Beethoven  (Louis  van),  illustrious 
German  composer  of  music 
(1770-1827). 

belement,  n,  m.,  bleating. 

beler,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  bleat. 


VOCABULARY. 


129 


belle,  adj.  fern.     (See  beau.) 

bellement,  adv.,  gently,  softly. 

belliqueux,  adj.,  warlike,  martial, 
valiant. 

bellot,  adj.,  pretty,  neat. 

bengali,  n.  m.,  bengalee  (a  kind 
of  finch). 

be*nin,  adj.  m.,  be*nigne,  /.,  be- 
nign. 

be*nir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  bless,  to 
praise  ;  to  wish  well ;  to  hal- 
low, to  consecrate. 

Be"otie,  n.  f.,  Beotia,  a  part  of 
Greece,  of  which  the  capital 
was  Thebes. 

Be"ranger  (Pierre-Jean  de),  poet, 
called  the  Burns  of  France 
(1780-1857). 

berceau,  n.  m. ,  cradle  ;  place  of 
one's  childhood  ;  arbor,  bower. 

bercer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rock,  to  lull 
asleep  ;  to  amuse,  to  feed  with 
hope,  to  delude,  to  natter. 

Bernes  (Henri)  born  at  Brest  in 
1861,  studied  at  the  College 
Sainte-Barbe,  and  at  the  Nor- 
mal School.  Soon  after  leaving 
school,  he  published  a  volume 
of  verses.  His  poems  are  full 
of  grace,  and  represent  nature 
under  divers  aspects. 

besoin,  n.  m.. ,  need,  want ;  neces- 
sity, distress  ;  occasion  ;  avoir 
besoin  —  to  be  in  need  of;  to 
want. 

be*tail,  n.  m.,  cattle. 

bete,  n.  f. ,  beast. 

biche,  n.  f. ,  hind,  roe. 

bien,  n.  m.,  good,  benefit,  welfare, 
well-being,  blessing;  boon,  mer- 
cy; endowment,  estate;  prop- 


erty; [ — ],  plu.,  good  things, 
goods,  chattels. 

bien,  adv.,  well;  right;  quite;  cer- 
tainly ;  indeed  ;  very  ;  much  ; 
many  ;  very  much  ;  very  well ; 
truly ;  great  many  ;  great  deal. 

bien-aime*,  adj.,  beloved,  well- 
beloved,  darling,  dear. 

bien  entendu,  adv.,  surely,  doubt- 
less, of  course. 

bien  entendu  que,  conj.  loc.,  on 
condition  that,  provided  that. 

bienfaisance,  n.  f.,  charity,  be- 
neficence, bounty. 

bienfait,  n.  m.,  good  turn,  good 
office,  kindness,  benefit,  favor, 
pleasure,  courtesy. 

bien  que,  conj.  loc.,  though,  al- 
though. 

bientot,  adv.,  soon,  shortly. 

bijou,  n.  m.,  jewel,  trinket. 

billet,  n.  m. ,  note,  letter,  promis- 
sory note. 

blamer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  blame,  to 
censure,  to  disapprove,  to  find 
fault  with. 

blanc,  adj. ,  white,  clean,  blank  ; 
pale  ;  dead  ;  sleepless,  silver. 

blanche,  adj.  f.     (See  blanc.) 

blanchir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  whiten,  to 
make  white  ;  to  whitewash ;  to 
wash,  to  bleach,  to  make  clean; 
to  blanch  ;  to  scald  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg.,  to  whiten,  to  grow  white; 
to  foam. 

blesser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  wound,  to 
cut,  to  hurt ;  to  offend,  to 
grate,  to  fret. 

bleu,  adj.,  blue. 

bleuatre,  adj.,  bluish,  somewhat 
blue. 


130 


VOCABULARY. 


blond,  adj.,  blonde,  fair,  light, 
flaxen. 

bceuf,  n.  m.,  ox;  beef  (flesh). 

Boileau  (Nicolas),  surnamed  Des- 
preaux,  celebrated  critic,  and 
author  of  the  Satires  and  VArt 
poetique  (1636-1711). 

boire,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  drink,  to 
absorb,  to  imbibe;  to  pocket 
(an  affront),  to  drain ;  apres 
boire  —  after  drinking. 

bois,  n.  m.,  wood,  forest,  timber. 

bon,  adj.  m.,  good,  well;  il  est 
bon,  v.  imper.,  it  is  good,  well. 

bondir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  bound,  to 
leap. 

bonheur,  n.  m.,  happiness,  pros- 
perity, felicity,  good  fortune, 
good  luck. 

bonne,  adj.,f.,  (see  bon). 

bonnement,  adv. ,  plainly,  simply. 

bord,  n.  m. ,  shore  ;  bank,  strand, 
side,  margin ;  brink,  edge,  brim; 
rim,  border ;  extremity ;  hem, 
edging. 

Bordeaux,  n.  m.,  Bordeaux. 

borner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  bound,  to 
set  bounds  to ;  to  limit,  to  cir- 
cumscribe, to  restrict,  to  con- 
fine ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  keep 
within  bounds. 

bosquet,  n.  m.,  grove,  thicket. 

botte,  n.  f. ,  boot ;  bundle,  truss, 
bunch;  cask;  clod  of  earth; 
etre  en  bottes  —  to  wear  boots. 

bouche,  n.  /.,  mouth;  lips;  tongue. 

bouger,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  budge,  to 
stir. 

bouillir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  boil,  to 
simmer ;  to  flow  rapidly  ;  to  be 
agitated. 


boulevard,  n.  m.,  bulwark,  ram- 
part ;  boulevard. 

Bourget  ( Charles-Joseph-Pauly) , 
novelist  and  poet.  Born  at 
Amiens  in  1852. 

Bourgogne,  n.  f. ,  Burgundy. 

bout,  n.  m. ,  end ;  tip ;  bit ;  muz- 
zle; fag-end;  venir  a  bout  — 
to  succeed ;  on  ne  saurait  en 
venir  a  bout  —  one  cannot  do  it. 

Boutelleau  (Georges),  lyric  poet. 
Born  at  Barbezieux  in  1846. 

braire,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  bray. 

branche,  n.  f.,  branch,  bough, 
stick,  arm ;  part,  division. 

bras,  n.  m.,  arm. 

brave,  n.  m. ,  courageous  man ; 
(b.  s.)  ruffian,  bully. 

brave,  adj.,  brave,  gallant,  true; 
smart,  fine,  spruce ;  honest ; 
good,  kind. 

braver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  defy,  to  set 
at  defiance,  to  bid  defiance,  to 
dare,  to  brave. 

brebis,  n.  f. ,  ewe,  sheep. 

bref,  adj.  m.,  breve,  /.,  brief, 
short. 

Bre*sil,  n.  m.,  Brazil. 

Bretagne,  n.  f. ,  Brittany. 

brillant,  adj.,  brilliant,  shining, 
sparkling,  glittering,  bright, 
showy,  effulgent,  radiant. 

briller,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  shine,  to 
glitter,  to  sparkle,  to  be  bright ; 
to  play,  to  blaze,  to  dawn  ;  to 
gleam,  to  glare. 

brin,  n.  m.,  blade,  slip,  slender 
stalk  ;  short  sprig ;  bit ;  brin  a 
brin  — bit  by  bit. 

briqueterie,  n.  f. ,  brick-yard. 

brise,  n.  f. ,  breeze. 


VOCABULARY. 


131 


bruire,  .v.  n.  irr.,  to  rustle,  to 
rattle,  to  roar. 

bruit,  n.  m.,  noise,  report,  din, 
sound,  clamor  ;  racket  ;  dis- 
pute; fame;  report,  talk,  rumor. 

bruler,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  burn,  to  con- 
sume, to  scorch,  to  blast,  to 
scar;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  burn, 
to  be  on  fire,  to  be  in  a  flame. 

brun,  adj.,  brown. 

Bruxelles,  n.  m.,  Brussels,  capital 
of  Belgium. 

bruyere,  n.  f. ,  heath. 


budget,  n.  m.,  budget;  budget 
d'un  manage — household  ex- 
penses ;  commission  du  budget 
—  committee  on  finance. 

buffet,  n.  m. ,  cupboard ;  side- 
board; table. 

Buff  on  (Georges-Louis  Leclerc, 
Comte  de),  celebrated  author 
and  naturalist  (1707-1788). 

buisson,  n.  m.,  bush,  thicket. 

bureaucratic,  n.  /.,  bureaucracy, 
red-tape. 

but,  n.  m.,  aim,  goal,  purpose. 


C. 


Ca,  dem.  pro.  (cela),  that. 

ca,  adv.,  here. 

cabane,  n.  /.,  cabin,  hut ;  cot,  shed. 

cacher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hide,  to  se- 
crete, to  conceal ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
•  reg.,  to  hide,  to  secrete  one's 
self  ;  to  lurk  ;  to  abscond. 

cacheter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  seal,  to 
seal  up. 

Cadix,  n.  m. ,  a  city  of  Andalusia 
in  Spain  ;  important  seaport. 

caillou,  n.  m.,  pebble,  flint. 

calamit^,  n.  f. ,  calamity. 

calme,  adj.,  calm,  quiet,  still. 

calvitie,  n.  f. ,  baldness. 

camail,  n.  m.,  camail,  cape. 

camarade,  n.  m.  f.,  comrade,  fel- 
low, mate  ;  companion  ;  play- 
mate ;  play-fellow ;  fellow-la- 
borer ;  fellow-servant. 

camp,  n.  m.,  camp. 

campagnard,  n.  m.,  countryman. 

canrpagne,  n.  f. ,  country,  fields ; 
ground,  campaign,  field. 

Canada,  n.  m.,  Canada. 

canard,  n.  m.,  drake,  duck. 


cancer,  n.  m.,  cancer. 

capitaine,  n.  m.,  captain,  general, 
commander. 

capitale,  n.  f.,  capital,  chief  city; 
capital  letter. 

car,  conj.,  for,  because,  as. 

caractere,  n.  m.,  character,  letter, 
type ;  stamp,  badge,  mark,  dig- 
nity,  temper,  humor,  expres- 
sion, spirit. 

caracte*riser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  char- 
acterize. 

caresser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  caress,  to 
stroke  ;  to  make  much  of ;  to 
fawn  upon. 

carnaval,  n.  m.,  carnival. 

cas,  n.  m.,  case,  event. 

en  cas  que,  conj.  loc.,  in  case  that. 

casser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  break,  to 
split,  to  crack ;  to  puzzle,  to 
rack,  to  wear  out ;  to  annul ; 
to  reverse  ;  to  dissolve. 

cause,  n.  f. ,  cause ;  motive ; 
ground  ;  subject. 

a  cause  de,  prep.,  for  the  sake  of; 
on  account  of ;  because  of,  for. 


132 


VOCABULARY. 


a  cause  que,  conj.  loc.,  because. 

cavale,  n.  f. ,  mare. 

cavalier,  n.  m.,  cavalier;  horse- 
man, rider  ;  gentleman  ;  part- 
ner, dancer ;  knight. 

ce, pro.,  he,  she,  it;  they. 

ce,  cet,  m.,  cette,  /.,  ces,  plu., 
adj. ,  this,  these  ;  that,  those. 

ceci,  dem.  pro. ,  this. 

cela,  dem.  pro.,  that. 

ceindre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  bind  ;  to 
encircle,  to  gird  on ;  to  enclose, 
to  encompass,  to  surround. 

ceinture,  n.  f. ,  sash,  girdle,  belt ; 
waist ;  enclosure  ;  circle. 

ce*lebre,  adj.,  celebrated,  famous. 

ce*le"brer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  celebrate  ; 
to  praise,  to  sing,  to  solem- 
nize. 

celeste,  adj. ,  celestial,  heavenly. 

celui,  dem.  pro.  m.,  celle,  /.,  ceux, 
celles,  plu. ,  he,  him ;  she,  her ; 
they,  them  ;  this,  that ;  these, 
those. 

celui-ci,  dem.  pro.  m. ,  celle-ci,  /. , 
ceux-ci,  celles-ci,  plu.,  this, 
this  one,  the  latter  ;  these. 

celui-la,  dem.  pro.  ?ft.,celle-la,  /., 
ceux-la,  celles-la,  plu.,  that, 
that  one,  the  former  ;  those. 

cendre,  n.  f. ,  ashes. 

cendre*,  adj.,  ashy. 

cens£-e  (etre),  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be  ac- 
counted, deemed,  reputed,  sup- 
posed. 

cent,  adj. ,  hundred  ;  pour  cent  — 
per  cent. 

centre,  n.  m.,  centre,  middle. 

cent  un,  adj.,  hundred  and  one. 

cent  cinquante,  adj.,  hundred 
and  fifty. 


cependant,  adv.,  in  the  meantime, 
while,  nevertheless,  however  • 
yet. 

ce  que,  pro.,  that  which,  what, 
that. 

ce  qui,  pro.,  that,  which,  what, 
that  which. 

cercle,  n.  m.,  circle,  company, 
club ;  circle,  sphere,  hoop, 
round,  ring. 

cerise,  n.  f. ,  cherry. 

cerisier,  n.  m.,  cherry-tree. 

certain,  adj.,  certain,  sure,  posi- 
tive ;  resolved,  fixed,  deter- 
mined ;  some. 

ces,  adj.    (See  ce.) 

Ce*sar,  n.  m.,  Csesar. 

cesse,  n.  f.,  ceasing,  intermission; 
sans  cesse  —  ceaselessly,  with- 
out intermission. 

cesser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  cease,  to  in-w 
termit ;   to  break  off;    [ — ],  v. 
n.  reg.,  to  cease,  to  forbear,  to 
leave  off,  to  be  at  an  end,  to 
have  done. 

cette,  adj.     (see  ce.) 

chacal,  n.  m.,  jackal. 

chacun,  indef.  pro.  m.,  chacune, 
/.,  each. 

chagriner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  render 
gloomy,  to  vex,  to  afflict,  to 
cross,  to  perplex,  to  disquiet;  to 
shagreen  (skins)-,  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  fret,  to  grieve,  to  take  on. 

chaine,  n.  f.,  chain,  shackle, 
cord  ;  bondage  ;  /.,  ridge  of 
mountains. 

chair,  n.  m. ,  flesh,  meat. 

chaise,  n.f.,  chair,  chaise  ;  chaise 
de  poste  —  post-chaise  (car- 
riage). 


VOCABULARY. 


133 


chaleur,  n.  /.,  heat;  fervency, 
zeal,  ardor,  warmth  ;  faire  de 
la  chaleur,  v.  imper.,  to  be  at 
fervent  heat. 

chambre,  n.  /.,  chamber,  room; 
lodging,  apartment ;  chambre 
a  coucher  —  sleeping  -  room  ; 
chambre  garnie  —  furnished 
lodging. 
•  champ,  n.  m.,  field. 

Champagne,  n.  f.,  Champagne 
(prov.);  [ — ],  n.  ??i.,  champagne 
(wine). 

chance,  n.  f. ,  hazard  ;  chance, 
luck,  good  luck,  good  fortune ; 
risk. 

chanceler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  totter,  to 
stagger,  to  waver,  to  falter,  to 
be  unsteady. 

changer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  change, 
to  exchange  ;  .to  alter,  to  turn, 
to  convert,  to  transform. 

chanson,  n.  /.,  song;  story;  non- 
sense. 

chant,  n.  m.,  singing,  strain, 
song  ;  air  ;  lay,  melody. 

chanter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  sing;  to 
chant ;  to  say,  to  tell,  to  talk 
about. 

chapeau,  n.  m.,  hat,  bonnet. 

chaperon,  n.  m.,  chaperon,  hood; 
chaperon,  companion. 

chapitre,  n.  m.,  chapter  (of  a 
book,  of  knights,  of  a  cathedral); 
subject ;  matter  of  discourse. 

chaque,  adj.,  each,  every. 

char,  n.  m.,  car,  chariot. 

charge,  n.  f.,  load,  burden;  ex- 
pense ;  charge ;  accusation ; 
post,  place,  office  ;  order ;  cus- 
tody ;  care ;  onset ;  a  la  charge 


que,  con/,  loc.,  upon  condition 
that,  provided  that. 

charger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  load,  to 
saddle,  to  charge  ;  to  burden, 
to  clog,  to  encumber;  to  im- 
pute, to  lay  a  thing  to  one's 
charge  ;  to  charge  with,  to  trust 
with ;  to  fall  upon,  to  make 
an  onset  on;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
to  load,  to  exaggerate,  to  lay 
it  on  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  take 
charge  ;  to  burden  one's  self ; 
to  become  overcast  (weather). 

chargeure,  n.  f. ,  load. 

chariot,  n.  m.,  wagon,  cart. 

Charles,  n.  m.,  Charles. 

Charles  d'Espagne,  n.  m.,  Charles 
V.,  son  of  Philippe  the  hand- 
some, and  king  of  Spain.  (See 
Charles-  Quint. ) 

Charles  -  Quint,  n.  m.,  son  of 
Philippe  the  Handsome,  and 
Jane,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella;  King  of  Spain, 
and  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Bom  at  Ghent  in  1500,  died  at 
the  monastery  of  Yuste,  1558. 

charmant,  adj.,  charming. 

charme,  n.  m.,  charm,  spell,  en- 
chantment; attraction,  delight. 

chasse,  n.  f.,  chase,  hunting,  pur- 
suit. 

chasseur,  n.  m.,  hunter. 

Chateaubriand  (Francois  -  Rene, 
Vicomte  de),  celebrated  author 
(1768-1848). 

chaud,  adj.,  hot,  warm,  burning; 
fervent ;  zealous,  eager ;  hasty, 
passionate  ;  faire  chaud,  v.  im- 
per., to  be  hot,  warm. 

chef-d'oeuvre,  n.  m.,  masterpiece. 


134 


VOCABULARY. 


chemin,  n.  m.,  way,  road,  path, 
track ;  means,  course ;  chemin 
de  f  er  —  railway. 

chene,  n.  m.,  oak. 

cher,  adj. ,  dear,  beloved  ;  dear, 
costly. 

chercher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  seek,  to 
look  for,  to  search,  to  be  in 
quest  of ;  to  endeavor,  to  at- 
tempt, to  try. 

chere,  adj.  f.     (See  cher.) 

che"rir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  love  dearly, 
to  cherish  ;  to  hug. 

cheval,  n.  m. ,  horse  ;  a  cheval  — 
on  horseback. 

chevaux,  n.  m.  plu.    (See  cheval.) 

cheveu,  n.  m.,  hair. 

chevrefeuille,  n.  m.,  honeysuckle. 

Chez,  prep.,  at,  to,  in;  in  one's 
house ;  at  the  home  of ;  at, 
to,  the  native  place  of ;  with, 
among. 

Chine,  n.  f. ,  China. 

choir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  fall. 

choisir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  choose,  to 
make  a  choice  of ;  to  select,  to 
pick  out ;  to  nominate. 

chose,  n.  f. ,  thing  ;  matter,  busi- 
ness, affair,  deed  ;  reality  ;  peu 
de  chose  —  very  little. 

chou,  n.  m.,  cabbage. 

chou-fleur,  n.  m.,  cauliflower. 

chute,  n.  /.,  fall,  decline. 

ciel,  n.  m.,  heaven,  the  firma- 
ment, sky  ;  the  heavens ;  para- 
dise. 

cieux,  n.  m.  plu.     (See  ciel.) 

ci-inclus,  adj.,  here  enclosed. 
(Seepage  88.) 

ci-joint,  adj.,  here  enclosed,  here 
joined.  (See  page  88.) 


cime,  n.  f.,  top,  summit  (of  a 
mountain  or  tree). 

cinq,  adj.,  five. 

cinquante,  adj.,  fifty. 

cinquante  et  un,  adj. ,  fifty-one. 

cinquieme,  adj.,  fifth. 

circoncire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  circumcise. 

circonscrire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  circum- 
scribe, to  encircle  ;  to  limit,  to 
stint. 

circonstance,  n.  f. ,  circumstance-. 

circonvenir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  circum- 
vent, to  overreach. 

citer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  cite,  to  quote; 
to  name  ;  to  summon  ;  (jur.), 
to  subpoena. 

citoyen,  n.  m.,  citizen,  inhabitant 
of  a  city. 

civil,  adj.,  civil ;  courteous,  well- 
bred,  gallant. 

clair,  adj. ,  clear,  bright ;  lucid ; 
transparent;  pure,  limpid;  thin; 
plain,  manifest,  evident. 

clair,  adv. ,  clearly,  plain,  plainly. 

clairseme",  adj. ,  thin,  thinly  sown, 
scarce. 

Claretie  (Jules- Arsene-Arnaud). 
Author,  journalist,  administra- 
tor of  the  Come"die-Fran§aise. 
Born  at  Limoges  in  1840. 

clarte",  n.  f.,  light,  splendor, 
clearness,  transparency,  bright- 
ness. 

classe,  n.  f. ,  class. 

climat,  n.  m.,  climate. 

cloche,  n.  f. ,  bell. 

clocher,  n.  m.,  steeple,  belfry. 

clore,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  enclose,  to 
fence,  to  shut  in ;  to  close ;  to 
end,  to  finish,  to  conclude. 

clou,  n.  m.,  nail. 


VOCABULARY. 


135 


codicille,  n.  m.,  codicil. 

cceur,  71.  in. ,  heart,  mind,  soul ; 
courage,  spirit ;  de  grand  coeur 
—  with  all  one's  might. 

coi,  adj.  m. ,  coite,  /. ,  quiet,  snug. 

coin,  n.  m.,  corner,  angle,  nook; 
coin  ;  stamp  ;  wedge. 

coite,  adj.  f.     (See  coi.) 

college,  n.  m.,  college. 

colline,  n.  f. ,  hill,  hillock. 

Colomb,  n.  m.,  Columbus. 

colonel,  n.  m.,  colonel. 

colonne,  n.  f. ,  column  ;  pillar. 

colossal,  adj.,  colossal. 

combat,  n.  m. ,  combat,  fight,  con- 
test, struggle,  strife. 

combattre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  fight,  to 
combat ;  to  wage  war  against, 
to  dispute,  to  contest ;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  reg.,  to  fight,  to  combat,  to 
contend,  to  vie  with  one  an- 
other, to  struggle. 

combien,  adv.,  how  many,  how 
much. 

commander,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  com- 
mand, to  order,  to  govern ;  to 
have  command  of;  to  overlook; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  command,  to 
rule,  to  direct,  to  bid;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  control  one's  self. 

comme,  adv.,  as,  like,  so;  almost, 
nearly ;  as  if ;  how,  in  what 
way  •>  [ — ]•>  conj.,  as,  since,  be- 
cause, seeing  that. 

commencer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  begin, 
to  commence;  [ —  a],  indicates 
an  action  which  will  go  on  pro- 
gressing ;  [ —  de] ,  indicates  an 
action  which  will  endure. 

comment,  n.  m.,  the  reason,  the 
why  and  the  wherefore. 


comment,  adv. ,  how,  in  what  man- 
ner ;  why,  wherefore  ;  what ! 
indeed ! 

commettre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  commit ; 
to  perpetrate ;  to  appoint,  to 
delegate,  to  constitute,  to  em- 
power ;  to  trust  with,  to  con- 
fide; to  exp9se;  to  embroil ;  to 
make  mischief  between;  (nav.), 
to  lay. 

commission,  n.  f.,  commission, 
trust;  errand,  charge;  warrant; 
committee. 

communiquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  com- 
municate, to  impart ;  to  show, 
to  tell,  to  acquaint. 

compagnie,  n.  j£,  society,  com- 
pany ;  en  compagnie  —  in  so- 
ciety. 

compagnon,  n.  m.,  companion, 
associate,  fellow,  mate,  part- 
ner ;  play-fellow,  playmate. 

comparaison,  n.  f.,  comparison; 
simile  ;  similitude. 

comparaitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  appear 
before  a  tribunal. 

comparoir,  v.  n.  irr.  (jur.),  to 
make  one's  appearance  in  a 
court  of  justice. 

compatir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  sympa- 
thize with;  to  compassionate; 
to  agree,  to  be  compatible 
with. 

complaire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  humor, 
to  please,  to  delight. 

complet,  adj.,  complete,  full,  to- 
tal, perfect. 

complot,  n.  m.,  plot,  conspiracy. 

comporter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  permit, 
to  allow  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
behave  ;  to  go  on. 


136 


VOCABULARY. 


composer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  compose, 

form,  create,  compound  ;   [ — ], 

11     v.    n.    reg.,   to    compound,    to 

compromise,    to   make   up,   to 

adjust. 

comprendre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  compre- 
hend, to  include ;  to  comprise, 
to  contain  ;  to  understand,  to 
conceive. 

compromettre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  com- 
promise, to  implicate ;  to  put 
to  arbitration;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr., 
to  expose,  to  commit,  to  com- 
promise. 

compte,  n.  m.,  account,  reckon- 
ing, calculation,  score ;  ques- 
tion ;  report,  profit ;  esteem, 
value,  regard. 

compter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  count,  to 
number,  to  calculate ;  to  in- 
clude; to  settle  accounts;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg.,  to  reckon,  to  calcu- 
late ;  to  purpose,  to  intend  ;  to 
think,  to  expect. 

Comte  (Auguste),  the  founder  of 
the  positive  school  of  philoso- 
phy (1798-1857.) 

comtesse,  n.  f. ,  countess. 

Comtois,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  the  peo- 
ple of  Franche-Comte". 

conception,  n.  f.,  conception, 
apprehension ;  thought,  notion, 
understanding ;  wit,  conceit. 

concevoir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  conceive ; 
to  apprehend,  to  imagine,  to  un- 
derstand, to  perceive,  to  com- 
prehend ;  to  word,  to  express. 

conclure,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  conclude, 
to  finish;  to  infer;  [— ],  v.  n. 
irr. ,  to  conclude,  to  infer  ;  to 
think;  to  judge. 


concourir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  unite,  to 
meet ;  to  conspire,  to  concur ; 
to  compete  ;  to  contribute. 

condamner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  con- 
demn ;  to  blame,  to  censure ; 
(jur.),  to  sentence  ;  to  block  up 
(doors),  to  give  over  (patients.) 

condescendre,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  con- 
descend, to  comply,  to  yield. 

condition,  n.  f. ,  condition  ;  cir- 
cumstance ;  nature ;  quality ; 
rank  ;  fortune  ;  station  ;  situa- 
tion. 

a  condition  que,  conj.  loc.,  on 
condition,  provided  that. 

conduire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  conduct, 
to  lead,  to  guide,  to  convey,  to 
bring,  to  take ;  to  govern,  to 
rule,  to  direct ;  to  accompany, 
to  attend ;  to  have  command 
of;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  conduct, 
to  lead,  to  drive. 

confesser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  confess, 
to  acknowledge,  to  avow. 

confer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  confide,  to 
intrust,  to  commit  to  ;  to  tell 
in  confidence;  [se — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  trust  in ;  to  place  reli- 
ance on ;  to  unbosom  one's 
self  to. 

confire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  preserve ; 
to  pickle. 

conformation,  n.  f.,  conforma- 
tion. 

conformer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  conform. 

congestion,  n.  f. ,  congestion. 

conjoindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  conjoin, 
to  join,  to  unite. 

conjugaison,  n.  f. ,  conjugation. 

conjuguer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  conju- 
gate. 


VOCABULARY. 


137 


conjurer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  conspire, 
to  plot ;  to  exorcise  ;  to  conjure 
down  ;  to  implore. 

connaissance,  n.  f. ,  knowledge  ; 
acquaintance;  intercourse ; 
learning,  understanding;  per- 
dre  connaissance  —  to  lose  con- 
sciousness. 

connaitre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  know,  to 
perceive  ;  to  recognize ;  to  be 
versed  in  ;  to  experience  ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  irr.,  to  know,  to  take 
cognizance. 

conque*rant,  n.  m.,  conqueror. 

conque*rir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  conquer, 
to  subdue  ;  to  gain,  to  obtain. 

conquete,  n.  f. ,  conquest,  victory. 

conscience,  n.  f. ,  conscience. 

conseil,  n.  m.,  counsel,  advice; 
council,  board  ;  resolution,  de- 
termination. 

conseiller,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  advise,  to 
counsel,  to  give  advice. 

consentir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  consent, 
to  agree,  to  assent  to;  (nav.),  to 
spring,  to  break ;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr., 
(jur.),  to  consent  to. 

conserver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  preserve, 
to  keep  ;  to  maintain. 

considerable,  adj.,  considerable, 
notable,  eminent,  illustrious, 
important. 

consister,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  be  com- 
posed, to  consist. 

consolation,  n.  f.,  consolation. 

console,  n.  f. ,  bracket. 

consoler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  console,  to 
solace,  to  comfort. 

conspirer,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  con- 
spire, to  concur,  to  combine, 
to  plot. 


Constance,  n.  f. ,  con&tancy  ;  per- 
severance ;  steadiness,  stead- 
fastness ;  firmness,  persistence. 

constant,  adj.,  constant,  faithful, 
unshaken,  steadfast,  persever- 
ing, invariable ;  steady,  lasting; 
certain. 

constellation,  n.  /.,  constellation. 

constituer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  consti- 
tute, to  make,  to  place,  to  put, 
to  settle,  to  assign,  to  raise  to 
an  office,  or  dignity. 

construire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  construct, 
to  build,  to  frame  ;  to  arrange  ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  irr.  (gram.),  to  con- 
struct, to  construe. 

consulter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  consult, 
to  advise  with,  to  take  advice 
of,  to  deliberate,  to  confer. 

consumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  consume, 
to  destroy ;  to  squander,  to 
waste,  to  spend  ;  to  wear  out ; 
[se  — ] ,  v.  r.  reg. ,  to  decay,  to 
ruin  one's  self,  to  undermine 
one's  health. 

conte,  n.  m. ,  story,  tale,  fib,  false- 
hood. 

contemplation,  n.  f.,  contempla- 
tion, meditation,  reflection. 

contenance,  n.  f. ,  capacity  ;  con- 
tents ;  countenance,  posture, 
air,  look,  deportment ;  Je  ne 
sais  quelle  contenance  garder, 
I  do  not  know  how  to  look. 

contenir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  contain,  to 
hold  ;  to  include,  to  comprise  ; 
to  confine  ;  to  restrain,  to  re- 
press, to  hold  in  check,  to  rule, 
to  bridle  ;  to  dam. 

content,  adj.,  content,  contented  ; 
satisfied,  pleased,  gratified. 


138 


VOCABULARY. 


contenter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  content, 
to  give  satisfaction,  to  gratify, 
to  indulge,  to  humor;  [se — ], 
to  be  satisfied  with  ;  to  take  up 
with,  to  rest  satisfied  with. 

contigu,  adj.,  contiguous,  adjoin- 
ing. 

continuel,  adj.,  continual,  unin- 
terrupted, uninterrnitting. 

continuer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  continue  ; 
to  go  on  with ;  to  lengthen,  to 
prolong;  to  extend;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg.,  to  continue,  to  keep  on, 
to  run  on. 

contraction,  n.  f. ,  contraction. 

contraindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  con- 
strain, to  compel,  to  force,  to 
impel ;  to  restrain. 

contraire,  n.  m.,  contrary,  opposite. 

central,  n.  m.,  contract. 

contre,  prep. ,  against ;  contrary 
to ;  by,  near,  close,  close  by. 

contredire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  contra- 
dict, to  gainsay  ;  (jur.),  to  con- 
fute, to  disprove  ;  (hunt.),  to  re- 
claim. 

contrefaire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  counter- 
feit, to  imitate,  to  copy ;  to 
mimic  ;  to  disguise,  to  disfigure. 

contrevenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  trans- 
gress, to  violate ;  to  infringe  ; 
to  act  contrary  to. 

contrevent,  n.  m. .  outside  shutter. 

contribuer,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  contrib- 
ute, to  help  on,  to  tend,  to 
conduce. 

convaincre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  convince; 
to  convict ;  to  persuade,  to 
satisfy. 

convenable,  adj.,  suitable,  fit, 
proper,  convenient,  consonant ; 


seasonable;  adequate,  conform- 
able, agreeable ;  meet,  seem- 
ly, becoming;  expedient;  fit- 
ting. 

convenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  [with  avoir], 
to  suit,  to  fit,  to  match ;  to  be 
proper  for ;  to  be  suitable ; 
[with  etre],  to  agree ;  to  admit, 
to  own,  to  acknowledge ;  il 
convient,  imper.,  it  is  suitable, 
proper. 

conviction,  n.  f. ,  conviction. 

convier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  invite,  to 
incite,  to  urge. 

convive,  n.  m.  f. ,  guest ;  bon  con- 
vive—  good  table  companion. 

coope*rer,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  co-operate. 

copie,  n.  f. ,  copy. 

cor,  n.  m.,  horn. 

corail,  n.  m.,  coral. 

Cormenin  (Louis -Marie  de  la 
Haye,  Viscount  de),  publicist 
and  author  (1788-1868). 

Corneille  (Pierre),  the  greatest 
dramatist  of  France.  Author 
of  the  Cid,  Horace,  Cinna, 
Polyeucte,  etc.  (1606-1684). 

corps,  n.  m. ,  body  ;  person ;  sub- 
stance, thickness ;  company, 
society ;  main  point. 

Corps  le*gislatif,  legislative  body, 
name  of  the  second  French 
chamber  from  1852  to  1870. 

correspondre,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  corres- 
pond, to  communicate,  to  be 
in  correspondence ;  to  agree,  to 
coincide. 

corridor,  n.  m.,  corridor,  gallery. 

corriger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  correct,  to 
rectify  ;  to  amend  ;  to  reprove  ; 
to  chastise  ;  to  reclaim. 


VOCABULARY. 


139 


cormpteur,  n.  m.  adj.,  spoiler, 
briber,  spoiling,  bribing. 

Corse,  n.  m.  /.,  corse,  adj.,  Cor- 
sican. 

cortege,  n.  m.,  retinue,  train,  cor- 
tege ;  attendants ;  procession. 

cote,  n.  f. ,  rib  ;  hill ;  coast ;  shore. 

cote*,  n.  m. ,  side  ;  way  ;  manner  ; 
flank;  part;  de  cote*  —  side- 
ways ;  aslant ;  de  ce  cote*  —  on 
this,  that  side  ;  a  c6te*  de — by, 
near,  by  the  side  of,  not  far 
off ;  on  a  par  (with) ;  close  by 
here,  by,  near  it,  next  to  it,  by, 
near  them,  next  to  them ;  de 
tous  les  cote's  —  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  du  cote*  de  —  towards. 

coteau,  n.  m. ,  declivity,  slope ; 
little  hill,  rising  ground. 

cou,  n.  m.,  neck. 

coucher,  n.  m.,  going  to  bed, 
retiring ;  sleeping;  setting ;  cou- 
cher du  soleil  —  sunset. 

coucher,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  put  to  bed ; 
to  lay  down ;  to  lodge ;  to 
knock  down  ;  to  incline  ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg. ,  to  lie,  to  sleep ;  to 
lie  down,  to  rest ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  go  to  bed  ;  to  lie  down  ; 
to  set ;  to  go  down. 

coudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  sew,  to  stitch; 
to  tack ;  to  fasten ;  to  press 
tight  together. 

couler,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  flow,  to 
run,  to  glide,  to  pour ;  to 
trickle,  to  drop,  to  leak,  to  run 
out ;  to  ooze  ;  to  glide  away  ; 
[se  — ] ,  v.  r.  reg. ,  to  slip,  to 
creep,  to  steal,  to  slide. 

couleur,  n.  f.,  color,  paint;  favor; 
appearance. 


coup,  n.  m. ,  blow,  thump,  knock, 
stroke,  hit,  thrust,  lash,  crack, 
clap,  report,  shot ;  tout  a  coup 

—  all  of  a  sudden,  suddenly. 
coupable,  n.  m.,  culprit. 

coupe,  n.  /.,  cup,  chalice;  cutting; 
cut  style)  ;  section  ;  plan ;  cra- 
ter; boire  dans  une  coupe  — 
to  drink  out  of  a  cup. 

couper,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  cut,  to 
cut  off,  out,  down,  away ;  to 
strike  off ;  to  cross,  to  get  be- 
fore ;  to  divide ;  to  intersect ; 
to  interrupt. 

cour,  n.  f. ,  court  (of  a  sovereign, 
of  justice)  ;  love  suit ;  court, 
yard  ;  court-yard  ;  basse-cour 

—  back-yard,  poultry-yard. 
courage,  n.  m.,  courage,  daring; 

spirit,  fortitude  ;  heart,  zeal ; 
passion. 

courageux,  adj.,  courageous,  dar- 
ing, gallant,  valiant,  brave, 
fearless. 

courant,  n.  m.,  current,  stream, 
tide  ;  course,  routine ;  present 
price  ;  present  month,  instant. 

courir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  run,  to  hasten; 
to  race;  to  run  after;  to  run 
on  ;  to  extend,  to  stretch ;  to 
flow  ;  to  run  along  ;  to  be  cur- 
rent, to  circulate,  to  be  about, 
abroad;  to  go  around;  (nav.),  to 
sail,  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr.,  to  run  after, 
to  pursue;  to  travel  over;  to  fre- 
quent; to  infest;  to  expose  one's 
self,  to  run,  to  take ;  to  hunt. 

courre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  (hunt)  to  run ; 
to  hunt.  (See  page  53,  24.) 

course,  n.f.,  race;  career;  journey, 
walk  ;  excursion,  jaunt ;  tour. 


140 


VOCABULARY. 


cousin,  n.  m.,  cousin. 

Cousin  (Victor),  a  French  philos- 
opher of  the  eclectic  school. 
(1792-1867.) 

couter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  cost ;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  reg. ,  to  cost ;  to  "be  expen- 
sive ;  to  be  painful,  trouble- 
some, mortifying. 

couvrir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  cover ;  to 
envelop  ;  to  wrap  up  ;  to  muffle 
up  ;  to  overspread,  to  load  ;  to 
overflow ;  to  protect ;  to  cloak, 
to  disguise  ;  to  excuse,  to  palli- 

.     ate,  to  keep  secret. 

craindre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  fear,  to  ap- 
prehend ;  to  be  afraid  of,  to 
dread ;  to  stand  in  awe  of ;  to 
be  unable  to  bear. 

crainte,  n.  /.,  fear,  dread,  awe, 
apprehension. 

de  crainte  que,  conj.  Zoc.,  for  fear 
of,  that ;  lest. 

crayon,  n.  m.,  pencil. 

creation,  n.  /.,  creation,  produc- 
tion. 

creuser,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  dig,  to 
delve  ;  to  hollow,  to  excavate, 
to  scoop  out;  to  sink,  to  deepen. 

cri,  n.  m.,  cry,  scream,  war, 
clamor,  yell,  outcry. 

crier,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  cry  out,  to  hal- 
loo, to  bawl,  to  scream ;  to 
brawl  ;  to  exclaim  ;  [ — ],  v. 
a.  reg.,  to  proclaim,  to  cry  ;  to 
publish  ;  to  put  up. 


crime,  n.  m.,  crime. 

Croatie,  n.  /.,  Croatia,  a  province 
in  Austria,  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic. 

croire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  believe;  to  cred- 
it ;  to  think ;  to  have  faith  in, 
to  trust  to,  to  place  reliance  on. 

croitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  grow,  to  grow 
up ;  to  lengthen ;  to  augment, 
to  increase ;  to  swell,  to  be 
swollen  ;  to  sprout,  to  shoot. 

crouler,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  sink,  to 
give  way,  to  fall,  to  fall  in,  to 
crumble,  to  ruin  ;  to  launch. 

croupe,  n.  f.,  croup,  crupper, 
rump  ;  top  or  brow  of  a  hill. 

cruel,  adj.,  cruel. 

cueillir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  cull,  to 
pick,  to  pluck ;  to  gather ;  to 
take  up. 

cuiller  (or  cuillere),  n.  /.,  spoon. 

cuire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  cook  ;  to  bake  ; 
to  boil ;  to  roast ;  to  grill ; .  to 
stew  ;  to  burn  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr., 
to  be  cooked  ;  to  be  done  ;  to 
bake ;  to  broil,  to  grill ;  to 
smart,  to  burn. 

culture,  n.  f. ,  culture,  cultivation. 

cure,  n.  f. ,  care,  cure ;  n' avoir 
cure  de  —  not  to  care  to. 

curieux,  adj.,  curious,  inquisitive; 
desirous ;  singular. 

curiosite*,  n.  f. ,  curiosity ;  inquis- 
itiveness ;  rarity. 

Cyrille,  n.  m.,  Cyril. 


Daigner,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  deign,  to  be 
pleased,  to  condescend. 

Dalmatie,  n.  /,,  Dalmatia,  the 
southernmost  province  of  Aus- 


tria, extending  along  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  Adriatic. 
dame,  n.  f. ,  lady  ;  married  lady  ; 
dame. 


VOCABULARY. 


141 


danger,  n.  m.,  danger. 

dangereux,  adj.,  dangerous. 

dans,  prep.,  in,  within,  into. 

date,  n.  /.,  date. 

Daudet  (Mme.Alphon»e),  nee  Julia 
Allard,  wife  of  the  celebrated 
author,  and  herself  a  writer  of 
talent.  She  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1847. 

davantage,  adv.,  more,  longer. 

Davout,  Duke  d'Auerstaedt, 
Prince  d'Eckmtihl,  and  Mar- 
shal of  France,  rendered  him- 
self illustrious  during  the  wars 
of  the  First  Empire,  1770-1823. 

de,  prep.,  from,  by,  with,  in, 
upon,  out  of. 

de*barasser,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  clear,  to 
clear  away,  to  disencumber,  to 
rid,  to  disentangle,  to  disem- 
barrass ;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
disentangle,  to  extricate  one's 
self  ;  to  rid,  to  get  clear  of. 

de*border,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  overflow, 
to  run  over  ;  to  project,  to  bag, 
to  jut  out;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
take  off  the  border;  to  outrun  ; 
to  go  beyond;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg. , 
to  overflow ;  to  break,  to  burst 
forth. 

debout,  adv.,  upright,  on  end;  up; 
standing  ;  etre  debout  —  to  be 
standing,  to  be  upon  one's 
feet. 

deca,  adv.  and  prep,,  here,  on  this 
side;  deca  et  dela —  here  and 
there,  this  and  that  side ;  en 
deca  de  —  on  this  side  of. 

ddceder,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  expire. 

deception,  n.  f. ,  deception. 

de"cevoir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  deceive. 


de"chire*,  part.,  torn,  rent,  ragged, 
tattered. 

de*chirement,  n.  m. ,  rending,  tear- 
ing, anguish  (of  heart). 

dechirer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  tear,  to 
rend,  to  lacerate ;  to  revile, 
to  defame;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  tear,  to  be  rent,  to  vilify,  to 
abuse,  to  defame  each  other. 

dechoir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  fall  off,  to 
decline,  to  decay;  to  lose,  to 
forfeit. 

decider,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  decide,  to 
determine,  to  settle;  to  induce, 
to  persuade  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
decide,  to  determine  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  decide,  to  resolve, 
to  make  up  one's  mind. 

declarer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  declare,  to 
make  known,  to  certify;  to  pro- 
claim ;  to  denounce  ;  [se  — ],  v. 
r.  reg. ,  to  speak  one's  mind  ;  to 
break  out ;  to  set  in  (weather). 

de"clore,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  throw  open; 
to  unclose. 

de*concerter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  discon- 
cert, to  foil,  to  baffle. 

de*confire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  discomfit. 

de*coudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  rip;  to  tear 
open;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  con- 
tend. 

de*couvrir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  uncover,  to 
expose,  to  unroof ;  to  unveil ; 
to  see,  to  spy  out ;  to  discover,, 
to  disclose. 

decrepitude,  n.  f. ,  decrepitude. 

decrire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  describe. 

de*croire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  disbelieve, 
to  discredit. 

de*croitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  decrease, 
to  diminish. 


142 


VOCABULARY. 


deMaigner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  disdain, 
to  scorn,  to  slight. 

d£dire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  gainsay,  to 
contradict,  to  unsay;  se  de"dire 
—  to  recant. 

de*duire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  take  from, 
to  deduct,  to  subtract ;  to  draw 
from,  to  deduce. 

de"faillir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  fail,  to 
grow  faint  and  weak  ;  to  decay; 
to  swoon. 

dSfaire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  undo ;  to 
take  apart ;  to  rip ;  to  unpack  ; 
to  alter ;  to  emaciate ;  to  de- 
liver ;  to  free,  to  rid  ;  to  defeat; 
to  eclipse,  to  obscure. 

def  aut,  n.  in. ,  defect ;  fault ; 
flaw,  blemish ;  want ;  default. 

def endre,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  defend,  to 
protect ;  to  shelter,  to  shield ; 
to  support,  to  uphold;  to  for- 
bid, to  prohibit ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg.,  (jur.),  to  defend ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  defend  one's  self, 
to  clear  one's  self,  to  deny. 

de"fier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  defy,  to  chal- 
lenge ;  to  dare ;  to  set  at  de- 
fiance; [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  (nav.), 
to  bear  off  from  a  thing; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  defy;  to 
distrust;  to  mistrust;  to  sus- 
pect. 

dSfinir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  define,  to 
determine;  to  decide;  to  ex- 
plain. 

de"gouter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  disgust,  to 
put  out  of  conceit ;  to  weary ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  take  a 
disgust,  a  dislike,  a  distaste  to. 

degre",  n.  m. ,  step,  stair  ;  grade, 
station  ;  degree,  point ;  extent. 


deguiser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  disguise, 
to  conceal,  to  hide. 

de*ja,  adv.,  already,  before,  yet. 

dejeuner,  n.  m.,  breakfast. 

dSjoindre,  v.  a,  irr.,  to  disjoin; 
to  separate. 

de"jouer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  baffle  ;  to 
play  badly. 

dela,  adv.,  and  prep.,  beyond; 
farther  than,  on  the  other  side 
of ;  en  dela,  par  dela,  au  dela, 
adv.,  beyond,  further  on,  up- 
wards, more;  au  dela  de  — 
beyond,  on  the  other  side  of ; 
en  dela  de  —  on  that  side  of. 

Delavigne  (Casimir),  dramatic 
poet,  and  author  of  Les  Mes- 
seniennes,  Louis  XI. ,  and  other 
well  -  known  dramas  (1 793  - 
1843.) 

de'libe'rer,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  deliberate, 
to  determine. 

Delille  (Vabbe  Jacques),  poet  and 
translator  of  Virgil,  (1738- 
1813.) 

demande,  n.  /.,  question,  request, 
petition ;  demand,  inquiry ; 
order. 

demander,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  ask,  to 
beg,  to  request,  to  demand ; 
(jur.),  to  pray,  to  wish,  to 
want ;  to  ask  for ;  to  inquire 
after. 

dSmentir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  give  the  lie 
to ;  to  c'ontradict ;  to  deny. 

de*mettre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  put  out  of 
joint,  to  dislocate ;  to  dismiss, 
to  turn  out ;  (jur.),  to  over- 
rule. 

demeure,  n.  /.,  abode,  home, 
dwelling,  lodgings ;  stay. 


VOCABULARY. 


143 


demeurer,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  rest,  to 
stay ;  to  remain  ;  to  stand,  to 
stop ;  to  live,  to  lodge,  to  re- 
side ;  to  dwell. 

demi,  adj.,  half. 

democratic,  n.  f. ,  democracy. 

demoiselle,  n.  f. ,  young  lady. 

de*molir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  demolish, 
to  pull  down. 

de*mouvoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  (jur.),  to 
deter  ;  (rare  and  only  in  infin.). 

dent;  n.  f. ,  tooth ;  notch,  cog ; 
mal  aux  dents  —  toothache. 

depart,  n.  m.,  departure,  setting 
out. 

de*partement,  n.  m.,  department. 

de*partir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  distribute, 
to  divide,  to  bestow,  to  en- 
dow. 

de*passer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  go  beyond ; 
to  exceed,  to  surpass. 

de*pecher,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  dispatch  ; 
to  be  quick ;  to  hasten ;  to 
make  away  with  anyone,  to 
kill;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  send 
off  a  courier,  a  messenger,  in 
haste. 

depeindre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  depict ; 
to  describe ;  to  represent. 

deplaire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  displease, 
to  offend ;  to  be  unpleasant, 
disagreeable. 

de*pouille*,  adj. ,  stripped ;  naked ; 
spoiled. 

d£pouiller,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  strip,  to 
skin ;  to  throw  or  cast  off ;  to 
despoil ;  to  divest. 

de*pourvoir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  be  desti- 
tute, to  be  unprovided. 

de*prendre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  loosen, 
to  part. 


depuis,  adv.,  since,  since  that  time. 

depuis,  prep.,  since,  from,  after. 

depuis  que,  conj.  loc.,  since. 

decider,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  un wrinkle, 
to  take  away  wrinkles,  to 
smooth  ;  [se  — ] ,  v.  r.  reg. ,  to 
unbend  ;  to  cheer  up. 

dernier,  adj. ,  last ;  highest,  great- 
est, vilest,  meanest. 

derriere,  adv.,  behind. 

derriere,  prep.,  behind,  behind 
one's  back. 

des,  part.  art.  plu.  m.  f.  (contrac- 
tion of  de  les),  some,  any. 

des,  prep.,  from,  since. 

des  que,  conj.  loc.,  as  soon  as, 
when. 

desaccoutumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  lose 
the  custom  or  habit. 

desapprendre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  forget 
what  one  has  learned. 

descendre,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  descend ; 
to  get  down  ;  to  go  down  stairs; 
to  alight ;  to  stay  ;  to  fall ;  to 
penetrate;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
descend,  to  take  down,  to  bring, 
to  let  down ;  to  go,  to  come  ; 
to  set  down  ;  to  land. 

descente,  n.  /.,  descent;  taking 
down  ;  alighting  ;  declivity  ; 
fall;  landing;  invasion;  search. 

description,  n.  f. ,  description,  in- 
ventory. 

desespe*rer,  v.  n,  reg.,  to  despair, 
to  despond,  to  give  up  all  hope; 
[ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  drive  to  des- 
pair, to  vex,  to  torment. 

Des  Essarts  (Emmanuel-Adolphe 
Langlois),  poet,  and  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  French  litera- 
ture (1839). 


144 


VOCABULARY. 


deshabiller,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  undress, 
to  bare. 

deshabituer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  lose  the 
habit,  to  break  off;  [se  — ],  v. 
r.  reg.,  to  break  one's  self  of. 

de'she'rite',  part. ,  disinherited. 

de'she'riter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  disinherit. 

de"sir,  n.  m.,  desire,  wish;  longing. 

de"sirer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  desire,  to 
wish  for,  to  long  for. 

d£sireux,  adj.,  desirous,  anxious. 

desolation,  n.  f. ,  desolation. 

de*sole",  part.  adj. ,  afflicted ;  dis- 
consolate, broken-hearted;  very 
sorry  ;  grieved. 

de"soler,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  desolate,  to 
lay  waste,  to  devastate ;  to 
afflict,  to  grieve ;  to  vex,  to 
annoy;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
pine  with  gTief,  to  be  discon- 
solate. 

de"sordre,  n.  m.,  disorder,  con- 
fusion ;  disorderly  life ;  riot, 
debauchery ;  variance,  dissen- 
sion, discord  ;  disturbance  ; 
devastation. 

despotisme,  n.  m.,  despotism. 

dessert,  n.  m.,  dessert. 

desservir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  take  away, 
to  clear  the  table,  to  remove 
the  cloth ;  to  do  an  ill  turn  to 
any  one  ;  to  officiate  (of  clergy- 
men). 

dessous,  adv.,  under,  below,  be- 
neath ;  au  dessous  —  under- 
neath ;  par  dessous  —  from 
below. 

dessus,  adv.,  on,  upon,  over; 
uppermost;  au  dessus  —  above; 
upwards  ;  par  dessus  —  above ; 
over  ;  more,  over  and  above. 


dessus,  prep.,  on,  upon;  au  des- 
sus de  —  beyond  ;  par  dessus 
—  over,  more. 

destinee,  n.  f. ,  fate,  destiny ; 
doom  ;  career. 

destiner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  destine, 
to  intend,  to  design,  to  pur- 
pose. 

detail,  n.  m.,  detail. 

de"teindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  take  out 
the  dye  ;  [— ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  lose 
color,  to  fade. 

de"tenir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  hold  back, 
to  detain,  to  withhold. 

determiner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  deter- 
mine, to  decide  ;  to  resolve  ;  to 
fix. 

de*tester,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  swear,  to 
condemn;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
detest,  to  abominate. 

de"truire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  destroy,  to 
ruin,  to  exterminate,  to  break 
up. 

deux,  adj.,  two. 

deuxieme,  adj.,  second. 

devant,  prep. ,  before  ;  in  front 
of,  on,  against,  opposite  to ; 
ahead  of. 

de>eloppement,  n.  m. ,  unfolding, 
opening ;  development ;  dis- 
play ;  evolution. 

deVelopper,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  open,  to 
unwrap  ;  to  unfold  ;  to  develop, 
to  expand ;  to  display,  to  ex- 
pound, to  explain  ;  to  extend. 

devenir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  become,  to 
grow,  to  get,  to  turn ;  to  be- 
come of,  to  come  to. 

de"vetir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  undress,  to 
take  off  the  clothes  ;  (jur.),  to 
divest. 


VOCABULARY. 


145 


devoir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  owe,  to  be  in 
debt ;  to  be  bound  to,  must, 
ought. 

de*vorer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  devour ;  to 
eat  up;  to  prey  upon,  to  destroy, 
to  suppress,  to  squander,  to 
consume  ;  to  gaze  at  eagerly  ; 
to  pore  over  ;  to  swallow,  to 
conquer,  to  master. 

de*vot,  adj.,  bigoted. 

devoue*,  adj.,  devoted. 

deVouement,  n.  m.,  devotion. 

de*vouer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  devote  ;  to 
dedicate ;  to  consign. 

diamant,  n.  m.,  diamond. 

dictateur,  n.  m.,  dictator. 

Dieu,  n.  m.,  God. 

difference,  n.  f.,  difference. 

different,  adj.,  different. 

diffe*rer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  defer,  to  put 
off,  to  postpone,  to  adjourn ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  delay;  to 
differ,  to  be  unlike ;  to  dis- 
agree. 

difficile,  adj.,  difficult,  hard;  nice, 
particular ;  wilful. 

difficulte*,  n.  f. ,  difficulty  ;  objec- 
tion ;  obstacle,  hindrance,  im- 
pediment ;  misunderstanding, 
quarrel. 

digestion,  n.  f. ,  digestion. 

digne,  adj. ,  deserving,  worthy ; 
upright. 

dignite*,  n.  f. ,  dignity;  stateliness. 

Dijon,  n.  m.,  an  important  city 
of  France,  in  the  department 
of  C6te  d'Or,  formerly  capital 
of  Burgundy  (Bourgogne). 

dilemme,  n.  m.,  dilemma. 

diminuer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  diminish, 
to  lessen,  to  reduce,  to  retrench, 


to  impair;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
diminish,  to  decrease,  to  abate. 

dindon,  n.  m.,  turkey-cock. 

diner,  n.  m.,  dinner. 

diner,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  dine. 

diplomatic,  n.  f. ,  diplomacy. 

dire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  tell,  to  say,  to 
speak,  to  state,  to  write,  to  re- 
late ;  to  express  ;  qu'en  dira-t- 
on  n.  m.,  what-will-the-world- 
say. 

diriger,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  direct ;  to 
guide,  to  conduct,  to  manage  ; 
[se  — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  direct  one's 
steps,  to  go  towards,  to  make 
for  ;  to  direct  one's  self. 

discerner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  discern, 
to  distinguish,  to  know,  to  dis- 
criminate. 

disciple,  n.  m.,  disciple,  pupil, 
scholar. 

discontinuer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dis- 
continue, to  leave  off,  to  sus- 
pend, to  interrupt. 

disconvenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  deny, 
to  disown, 

discourir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  discourse, 
to  reason  on,  to  descant  on. 

discret,  adj.,  discreet,  cautious, 
prudent. 

disculper,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  exculpate; 
to  vindicate. 

discussion,  n.  f. ,  discussion. 

disjoindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  disjoin, 
to  disunite. 

disparaitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  disappear; 
to  vanish ;  to  get  out  of  the 
way;  to  retire  hastily,  secretly. 

dispenser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dispense, 
to  bestow,  to  exempt ;  to  dis- 
pense with. 


146 


VOCABULARY. 


dispos,  adj.,  active,  nimble,  cheer- 
ful, well. 

disposer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dispose, 
to  order,  to  lay  out ;  to  pre- 
pare, to  make  ready,  to  fit; 
to  incline,  to  prevail  upon ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  dispose 
one's  self,  to  get  ready,  to 
prepare. 

disposition,  n.  f. ,  disposition,  ar- 
rangement, order;  provision; 
disposal ;  service ;  tendency; 
inclination,  aptness ;  humor ; 
mind,  resolution. 

dissoudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  dissolve, 
to  break;  to  cause  to  disappear; 
to  ruin,  (jur.),  to  annul. 

dissous,  adj.,  dissolved,  dismissed. 

dissuader,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dissuade, 
to  advise  to  the  contrary. 

distance,  n,  f. ,  distance. 

distiller,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  distil,  to 
ooze. 

distinction,  n.  f. ,  distinction. 

distinguer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  discern, 
to  distinguish;  to  discriminate; 
to  make  prominent  ;  to  take 
notice  of  ;  [se  — ] ,  v.  r.  reg. ,  to 
distinguish  one's  self,  to  be 
distinguished,  to  be  different. 

distraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  separate, 
to  subtract,  to  divert  from  ;  to 
deprive  ;  to  call  off ;  to  divert ; 
to  entertain  ;  to  distract. 

divers,  adj.,  different,  diverse, 
various  ;  several ;  sundry  ; 
divers. 

divertir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  divert ;  to 
amuse,  to  recreate,  to  delight ; 
to  embezzle,  to  convert  to  one's 
use. 


divin,  adj.,  divine;  godlike; 
heavenly. 

dix,  adj.,  ten. 

dix-huit,  adj.,  eighteen. 

dix-huitieme,  adj.,  eighteenth. 

dixieme,  adj.,  tenth. 

dix-neuf,  adj.,  nineteen. 

dix-neuvieme,  adj.,  nineteenth. 

dix-sept,  adj.,  seventeen. 

dix-septieme,  adj.,  seventeenth. 

docile,  adj.,  docile,  submissive, 
manageable. 

doctrine,  n.  f. ,  doctrine. 

doigt,  n.  m. ,  finger ;  toe. 

dom,  n.  m^  dom  —  style  of  address 
for  persons  belonging  to  cer- 
tain religious  orders,  for  in- 
stance, the  Benedictines  of  St. 
Maur. 

domaine,  n.  m. ,  domain ;  estate, 
possession,  property ;  depart- 
ment, province. 

d6me,  n.  m.,  dome,  cupola;  dome, 
principal  church. 

domination,  n.  f.,  domination, 
rule. 

dominer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  rule,  to 
bear  rule  or  sway,  to  have  the 
mastery;  to  dominate,  to  pre- 
vail ;  to  domineer ;  to  rise 
above  ;  to  command  a  view  of, 
to  look  over ;  to  command  ;  to 
predominate. 

dommage,  n.  m.,  damage,  injury, 
detriment,  loss;  harm;  c'est 
un  dommage  —  it  is  a  pity ; 
quel  dommage  —  what  a  pity. 

don,  n.  m.,  gift,  donation,  present, 
endowment,  knack. 

done,  co?i/.,  therefore;  accord- 
ingly ;  then,  consequently. 


VOCAUULAKY. 


147 


donner,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  give ;  to 
make  a  present  of ;  to  cause  ; 
to  grant ;  to  ascribe  ;  to  wish  ; 
to  confer  upon. 

dont,  pro.,  whose,  whereof,  of 
which,  of  whom,  for  whom. 

dore*,  part.,  gilt,  (fig.)  winning. 

dorer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  gild,  to  gild 
over  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be- 
come of  a  gold  color. 

dormir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  sleep,  to  be 
asleep;  to  be  supine;  to  be  still; 
to  be  stagnant ;  to  do  nothing. 

dos,  n.  ra.,back;  dos  a  dos  — 
back  to  back ;  faire  le  gros  dos 

—  to  get  up  its  back  (of  a  cat) ; 
to  assume  an  important  air. 

double,  adj.,  double,  duplicate; 
deceitful. 

Doubs,  n.  m.\  Doubs —  a  river  in 
France,  flowing  into  the  Sadne. 

douce,  adj.  f.     (See  doux.) 

douceur,  n.  f. ,  sweetness ;  fra- 
grance ;  softness ;  mildness ; 
kindness,  good  -  nature  ;  har- 
mony ;  delight,  pleasure,  com- 
fort ;  gentleness ;  meekness. 

douleur,  n.  f. ,  pain,  ache  ;  sore- 
ness ;  anguish,  grief,  sorrow, 
affliction,  woe. 

doute,  n.  m.,  doubt;    sans  doute 

—  doubtless,  indubitably. 
douter,  v.   a.  reg.,  to  doubt,  to 

question,  to  hesitate,  to  suspect; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  suspect, 
to    surmise,    to    mistrust ;     to 
distrust,  to  conjecture  ;  to  fear. 
doux,  adj.  m. ,  douce,  /. ,  sweet ; 
1      gentle;  soft,  smooth;  easy;  fra- 
grant, agreeable,  comfortable  ; 
peaceful,  calm;  fresh  (of  water). 


douze,  adj.,  twelve. 

douzieme,  adj.,  twelfth. 

dragon,  n.  m.,  dragon;  dragoon; 
termagant. 

drame,  n.  m.,  drama. 

dresser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  erect,  to 
straighten  ;  to  raise,  to  set  up  ; 
to  hold  upright ;  to  spread  ;  to 
draw  up;  to  prick  up  (the  ears), 
to  train  (animals)-,  to  hold 
erect ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  stand 
on  end;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
stand  erect,  to  arise ;  to  stand 
on  end  (of  the  hair). 

du,  def.  art.  m.,  (contraction  of 
de  le)  of  the,  from  the,  by  the  ; 
[ — ],part.  art.  m.,  (contraction 
of  de  le)  some,  any. 

Du  Guesclin  (Bertrand),  grand 
constable  (commander  in  chief 
of  the  army)  of  France  under 
Charles  V. ;  gained  many  vic- 
tories over  the  English.  (1314- 
1380). 

duire,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  suit,  to  please. 
(See  page  134.) 

Dumas  (Alexandre),  known  as 
Dumas  pere,  a  celebrated  novel- 
ist and  dramatist,  (1803-1870). 

Dumas  (Alexandre),  son  of  the 
former,  and  well-known  as  an 
author  and  dramatist,  born  in 
1824  ;  chosen  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1874. 

duquel,  rel.  pro. ,  of  which,  from 
which.  (See  lequel.) 

durable,  adj.,  durable,  lasting, 
solid. 

durant,  prep.,  during. 

durant  que,  conj.,  while. 

dure*e,  n.f.,  duration,  continuance. 


148 


VOCABULARY. 


Eau,  n.  /.,  water. 

e*bouillir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  boil  down, 
to  boil  away. 

e*chapper,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  escape,  to 
get  away,  to  get  out  of,  to 
avoid,  to  shun,  to  fly,  to  break 
out;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  escape, 
to  avoid;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
escape,  to  get  loose,  to  steal 
away,  to  slip  out ;  to  vanish, 
to  disappear. 

e'chevele',  adj.,  dishevelled,  dis- 
ordered, hanging  loose. 

e*cho,  n.  m.,  echo. 

e*choir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  expire,  to 
lapse,  to  devolve ;  to  chance ; 
to  fall,  to  fall  to. 

e*clairer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  light,  to 
give  light  to  ;  to  illuminate  ;  to 
enlighten,  to  instruct ;  to  ob- 
serve, to  watch ;  [ — ],  v.  n* 
reg.,  to  sparkle,  to  shine,  to 
brighten;  [ — ],  v.  imp.,  to 
lighten  ;  [s1 — ],  v.  a.  r.  reg.,  to 
become  enlightened,  to  instruct 
one  another. 

£clat,  n.  m.,  shiver;  splinter 
(wood,  stone,  etc.)-,  brightness, 
radiancy,  glitter,  effulgence ; 
clap,  crash,  noise;  lustre,  pomp, 
richness,  magnificence,  glory, 
gaudiness  (of  color)-,  rumor, 
uproar. 

e*clater,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  burst  in 
pieces,  to  split,  to  shiver ;  to 
crack,  to  clap ;  to  break  out ; 
to  cry  out ;  to  exclaim  against; 
to  shine,  to  sparkle,  to  glitter, 
to  blaze. 


e*clore,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  hatch ;  to 
blow,  to  open ;  to  break,  to 
dawn. 

e*clos,-  adj. ,  open,  blown. 

dcole,  n.  f. ,  school. 

e"colier,  n.  m. ,  school-boy,  scholar. 

e*conduire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  show  out; 
to  put  off ;  to  deny. 

£couler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  pour  away, 
to  sell ;  [s> — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  run 
or  flow  away ;  to  pass  away, 
to  glide  away  ;  to  slip  away. 

e"couter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  listen,  to 
hear,  to  pay  attention  to. 

Verier  (s'),  v.  r.  reg.,  to  cry  out,  to 
exclaim. 

e*crire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  write ;  to 
spell ;  to  pen  ;  » to  sit  down  ; 
to  edit ;  to  compose. 

e*cueil,  n.  m. ,  reef,  rock ;  peril, 
danger. 

e*cureuil,  n.  m.,  squirrel. 

e*curie,  n.  f. ,  stable. 

Sdifier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  build ;  to 
edify,  to  improve. 

Education,  n.  f.,  education. 

effacer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  efface,  to  ex- 
punge ;  to  wear,  to  rub,  to 
strike,  to  blot,  to  scrape,  to 
scratch  out ;  to  wash  away  ;  to 
obliterate  ;  to  eclipse,  to  throw 
into  the  shade. 

effet,  n.  m.,  effect,  performance, 
intent,  execution ;  purpose ; 
funds  ;  en  effet  —  in  reality, 
in  fact ;  indeed. 

efforcer  (s'),  v.  r.  reg.,  to  strain,  • 
to  strive,   to  struggle,   to  en- 
deavor. 


VOCABULARY. 


149 


effort,  n.  m.,  effort,  exertion ; 
force. 

effrayer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  frighten,  to 
terrify,  to  dismay. 

effroi,  n.  m.,  fright,  terror,  con- 
sternation. 

e*gal,  adj.,  equal. 

Sgalement,  adv.,  equally. 

e*galer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  equal,  to 
make  even,  level;  to  come  up  to, 
to  match  ;  to  compare  ;  [s* — ], 
v.  r.-reg.,  to  render  one's  self 
equal. 

Sgalite",  n.  /.,  equality,  uniform- 
ity, congruity. 

e*garer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  mislead,  to 
misguide  ;  to  bewilder,  to  im- 
pair (intellect);  to  lead  into 
error  ;  to  mislay  ;  [s> — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  lose  one's  way,  to  stray; 
to  err ;  to  mistake  ;  to  go  as- 
tray ;  to  ramble  ;  to  lose  one's 
self. 

Sglise,  n.  /.,  church. 

dgoisme,  n.  m.,  egotism,  selfish- 
ness. 

^grugeure,  n.  f. ,  small  fragment, 
grain. 

eh,  inter. ,  ah ;  well ;  eh  bien  — 
well. 

elance",  adj.,  slender,  slim,  thin, 
lank. 

e"lancer,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  shoot,  to 
twitch;  [s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
bound,  to  shoot,  to  shoot  forth, 
to  rush,  to  dash,  to  spring,  to 
take  one's  flight. 

electeur,  n.  m.,  voter,  elector. 

e"le*gant,  n.  m.,  man  of  fashion. 

e*le*gant,  adj.,  elegant,  fashion- 
able, 


e"le*phant,  n.  m.,  elephant. 

Sieve,  n.  m.  f.,  pupil,  scholar; 
student. 

Clever,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  raise,  to 
raise  up  ;  to  exalt,  to  lift  up; 
to  cast  up,  to  ennoble  ;  to  erect, 
to  rear  up ;  to  augment,  to  in- 
crease ;  to  run  up  (accounts) ; 
to  bring  up,  to  rear  ;  to  educate, 
to  train;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
arise ;  to  ascend,  to  mount,  to 
go  up,  to  run  up ;  to  amount ; 
to  be  elevated  ;  to  increase. 

e*lire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  elect,  to  choose. 

elle,  per.  pro.,  she  ;  her ;  it ;  plu., 
elles,  they,  them. 

eloignement,  n.  m. ,  removal ; 
distance,  remoteness ;  aver- 
sion, estrangement. 

eloigner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  remove, 
put  away,  to  send  away,  to 
dismiss ;  to  discard ;  to  repu- 
diate ;  to  avert ;  to  banish ; 
to  drive  away ;  [s* — ],  v.  a.  r. 
reg. ,  to  go  away,  to  remove  ; 
to  forsake ;  to  withdraw ;  to 
ramble  ;  to  be  different,  to  dif- 
fer. 

eloquence,  n.  f. ,  eloquence. 

eloquent,  adj.,  eloquent. 

embarras,  n.  m.,  encumbrance, 
obstruction,  stoppage,  impedi- 
ment ;  embarrassment ;  confu- 
sion, difficulty,  perplexity. 

embaumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  embalm; 
to  perfume,  to  scent. 

embellir,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  embel- 
lish, to  beautify  ;  to  adorn. 

emboire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  imbibe 
(color);  to  coat  with  oil  or 
wax, 


150 


VOCABULARY. 


embrasser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  embrace, 
to  clasp ;  to  kiss ;  to  encom- 
pass, to  encircle,  to  compre- 
hend, to  comprise,  to  take  in, 
to  include ;  to  seize,  to  avail 
one's  self  of,  to  undertake. 

emerveiller,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  aston- 
ish, to  amaze. 

e*mettre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  emit,  to 
put  in  circulation,  to  issue,  to 
put  forth,  to  express. 

Emma,  n.  f. ,  Emma. 

Emmanuel,  n.  m.,  Emmanuel. 

emmener,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  carry 
away,  to  lead  away,  to  take 
away,  to  fetch  away,  to  con- 
vey away. 

Emotion,  n.  /.,  emotion,  stir, 
commotion. 

Smoudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  whet,  to 
grind,  to  sharpen. 

6mouvoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  move,  to 
agitate  ;  to  stir  up  ;  to  provoke  ; 
to  rouse ;  to  affect,  to  touch. 

empecher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  oppose, 
to  prevent ;  to  hinder,  to  ob- 
struct;  [s> — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
forbear,  to  refrain  from. 

empire,  n.  m.,  empire. 

Empire  (Saint),  n.  m.,  The  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  (former  Ger- 
man Empire,  800-1806). 

emploi,  n.  m.,  employment,  em- 
ploy ;  situation,  place,  post. 

employer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  employ, 
to  use,  to  make  use  of  ;  to  be- 
stow ;  to  spend  ;  [s' — ],  v.  a.  r. 
reg.,  to  employ,  to  exert  one's 
self  ;  to  interest  one's  self. 

emporter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  carry 
away,  to  take  away,  to  sweep 


away,  to  carry  off;  [s> — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  fly  into  a  pas- 
sion ;  to  declaim,  to  inveigh ; 
to  rail  at ;  to  run  away  (of 
horses. ) 

empreindre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  imprint, 
to  stamp  ;  to  impress. 

empresser  (s7),  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be 
eager,  earnest,  forward,  to  be 
ardent. 

emprunter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  borrow. 

en,  pro.  m.  f.  sing.  plu. ,  of  him, 
of  her,  of  it,  its,  of  them,  their; 
from  him,  from  her,  from  it, 
from  them  ;  by  him,  by  her,  by 
it ;  by  them  ;  about  him,  about 
her,  about  it,  about  them ; 
thence,  from  thence,  some, 
any. 

en,  prep.,  in,  into,  within,  on,  to, 
at,  like,  in  the  form  of,  as  a, 
out  of,  by,  for. 

encablure,  n.  f. ,  cable  length. 

enceindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  surround, 
to  encompass,  to  encircle. 

enchantement,  n.  m.,  enchant- 
ment, delight. 

enchanteur,  n.  in.  and  adj.,  en- 
chanter, enchanting. 

enclin,  adj.,  inclined,  prone,  ad- 
dicted. 

enclore,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  enclose,  to 
fence  in,  to  take  in. 

encore,  adv. ,  yet,  still,  again ; 
once  more;  further;  moreover; 
besides,  however. 

encore  que,  conj.  loc.,  though, 
although. 

encourager,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  encour- 
age, to  stimulate,  to  be  a  pro- 
moter of. 


VOCABULARY. 


151 


encourir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  incur,  to 
draw  down  upon  one's  self,  to 
fall  under. 

endormir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  lull  asleep, 
to  send  to  sleep ;  to  lull,  to 
benumb,  to  wheedle,  to  de- 
ceive. 

endosser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  endorse,  to 
put  on  the  back  ;  to  put  on. 

endroit,  n.  m.,  place,  part,  pas- 
sage ;  point ;  best  side,  right 
side. 

enduire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  do  over,  to 
lay  over,  to  coat. 

endurcir,  v.  a,  reg. ,  to  harden ;  to 
render  obdurate  ;  to  steel. 

e*nergique,  adj.,  energetic,  ener- 
getical, forcible. 

enfance,  n.  /.,  infancy,  child- 
hood ;  childishness,  puerility, 
dotage. 

enfant,  n.  m.  /.,  child. 

enfer,  n.  m.,  hell,  infernal  re- 
gions. 

enfermer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  shut,  to 
shut  in  ;  to  shut  up  ;  to  lock 
up  ;  to  enclose  ;  to  conceal ; 
to  comprehend,  to  comprise ; 
[s> — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  lock  up,  or 
shut  up  one's  self ;  to  seclude 
one's  self. 

enfin,  adv.,  in  fine,  finally,  at 
length,  in  short,  after  all,  at 
last. 

enfoncer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  sink,  to 
sink  to  the  bottom,  to  drive  in; 
to  break  in;  to  surpass,  to  ruin, 
to  blow  up;  [s>— ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  sink  down  ;  to  break  down  ; 
to  bury  one's  self  ;  to  plunge  ; 
to  fail. 


enfreindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  infringe, 
to  violate,  to  transgress. 

enfuir  (s'),  v.  r.  irr.,  to  run 
away ;  to  flee  ;  to  escape  ;  to 
disappear ;  to  elope ;  to  run 
out,  to  leak. 

engager,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  pawn,  to 
pledge ;  to  engage,  to  induce  ; 
to  unite,  to  compel ;  to  bind  ; 
to  enroll;  [s> — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  engage  one's  self ;  to  prom- 
ise. 

enhardir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  embolden; 
[s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  grow  bold, 
to  make  bold. 

enjoindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  enjoin,  to 
charge. 

ennemi,  n.  m.,  enemy,  foe. 

ennoblir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  ennoble,  to 
bestow  a  title  upon. 

ennui,  n.  m.,  weariness,  fatigue. 

ennuyer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  tire, 
to  weary,  to  be  tedious,  to 
annoy,  to  bother ;  [s' — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  be  wearied,  to  feel 
dull. 

enorgueillir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  make 
proud,  to  elevate  ;  [s' — ],  to  be 
proud  of,  to  be  puffed  up,  to 
become  elated. 

e*norme,  adj.,  enormous,  huge. 

enque*rir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  inquire,  to 
make  an  inquiry. 

enrager,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  be  mad,  to 
run  mad,  to  be  enraged. 

enseigner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  teach,  to 
instruct ;  to  show,  to  inform. 

ensemble,  n.m., whole,  ensemble; 
uniformity  ;  harmony. 

ensemble,  adv.,  together,  con- 
jointly, at  the  same  time. 


152 


VOCABULARY. 


ensevelir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  bury; 
to  lay  out ;  to  conceal ;  to 
ingulf. 

ensuivre  (s>),  v.  a.  irr.,  to  follow; 
to  spring ;  to  ensue. 

entendre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  intend,  to 
mean  ;  to  expect,  to  require  ; 
to  understand  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
to  hear;  to  listen  to;  to  approve 
of  ;  to  consent  to  ;  [s* — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  understand  one  another; 
to  hear  one  another ;  to  be  on 
good  terms  with,  to  be  skilful  in; 
to  be  judge  of ;  cela  s'entend 
—  that  is  a  matter  of  course. 

entendu,  adj. ,  intelligent,  skillful. 

bien  entendu,  adv.,  surely,  doubt- 
less. 

bien  entendu  que,  conj.  loc., 
nevertheless,  however. 

enterrer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  bury,  to 
inter,  to  inhume ;  to  survive, 
to  eclipse,  to  surpass ;  to  end, 
to  terminate. 

enteter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  render  giddy, 
vain,  or  conceited;  to  intox- 
icate ;  [s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  get 
obstinate  ;  to  be  bent  upon  ;  to 
be  prepossessed. 

enthousiasme,  n.  m. ,  enthusiasm, 
rapture,  ecstacy. 

entier,  n.  m.,  entireness,  entirety; 
en  entier,  en  son  entier  —  en- 
tirely, wholly,  fully,  in  full,  at 
full  length. 

entier,  adj,,  entire,  whole,  com- 
plete, total. 

entourer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  enclose,  to 
surround. 

entrain,  n.  m. ,  spirits,  animation, 
life. 


entrainement,  n.  m.,  impulse, 
sway,  prevalence  ;  rapture,  en- 
thusiasm ;  temptation  ;  allure- 
ment. 

entrainer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  carry 
away,  to  drag  away;  to  hurry 
along  ;  to  lead  away  or  on  ;  to 
captivate;  to  involve;  to  train. 

entre,  prep.,  between,  betwixt; 
among,  amongst ;  in. 

entremettre  (s'),  v.  a.  irr.,  to 
interpose,  to  interfere,  to 
meddle. 

entreprendre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  under- 
take, to  attempt,  to  contract 
for ;  to  offer,  to  venture ;  to 
trouble;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  en- 
croach on,  to  infringe  upon. 

entreprise,  n.  /.,  enterprise,under- 
taking. 

entrer,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  enter,  go  in, 
come  in  ;  to  take  possession  ; 
to  enter  any  one's  service,  to 
walk  or  step  in  ;  to  penetrate  ; 
[ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  let  in  ;  to  in- 
troduce ;  to  admit,  to  inscribe. 

entre-temps,  n.  m.,  interval. 

entretenir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  keep  up, 
to  keep  in  repair,  to  preserve, 
to  maintain ;  to  cherish ;  to 
converse,  to  talk  with ;  to  en- 
tertain. 

entrevenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  inter- 
vene. 

entrevoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  have  a 
glimpse  of,  to  peep  in ;  to  fore- 
see ;  to  haVe  misgivings. 

entr'ouvrir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  open  a 
little,  to  half-open;  [s> — ],  v. 
r.  irr. ,  to  open,  to  gape  ;  to  be 
ajar. 


VOCABULARY. 


153 


envelopper,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  wrap 
up,  to  envelop ;  to  fold  up ; 
to  surround ;  to  involve ;  to 
invest. 

envieux,  adj.,  envious. 

envoyer,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  send,  to 
forward ;  to  transmit. 

6pais,  adj.,  thick. 

£paisseur,  n.  f. ,  thickness,  depth ; 
density. 

gpaule,  n.  /.,  shoulder. 

6pe*e,  n.  f. ,  sword,  steel. 

Speler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  spell. 

Spoque,  n.  /.,  epoch,  time,  era. 

Spouser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  marry,  to 
wed,  to  espouse. 

Spousseter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dust,  to 
wipe  off  the  dust,  to  beat  the 
dust  out  of. 

e*pouvantail,  n.  m.,  scare-crow. 

Spreindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  squeeze 
out,  to  press. 

Sprendre  (s>),  v.  a.  r.  irr.,  to  catch, 
to  take  fire ;  to  become  en- 
amored. 

6prouver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  try,  to 
prove  ;  to  put  to  the  proof  ;  to 
feel,  to  experience,  to  meet 
with. 

Spuiser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  exhaust,  to 
spend,  to  drain,  to  use  up ; 
[s1 — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  exhaust 
one's  self,  to  be  exhausted,  to 
waste,  to  wear  out. 

Squestre,  adj.,  equestrian. 

Equilateral,  adj.,  equilateral,  with 
equal  sides. 

Squivaloir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  be  equiva- 
lent. 

erreur,  n.  /.,  error,  illusion,  mis- 
take. 


escompter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  discount, 
to  cash. 

espace,  n.  m.,  space  ;  room. 

espece,  n.  f. ,  species,  sort,  kind. 

esperance,  n.  f.,  hope,  expecta- 
tion. 

esperer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hope,  to 
hope  for  ;  to  expect,  to  trust. 

espoir,  n.  m.,  hope,  expectance, 
aspiration. 

esprit,  n.  m.,  spirit,  soul,  ghost, 
shade ;  mind,  sense,  under- 
standing, wit,  intellect;  humor; 
temper,  character  ;  meaning ; 
spirit. 

essai,  n.  m.,  trial,  essay,  at- 
tempt ;  sample  ;  testing,  assay- 
ing (metal). 

essayer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  try,  to 
essay,  to  attempt,  to  make  a 
trial ;  to  assay  ;  [sj — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  try  one's  strength, 
one's  ability,  one's  hand. 

estime,  n.  f.,  esteem,  regard, 
estimation. 

estomac,  n.  m.,  stomach. 

estropie",  n.  m.,  cripple. 

et,  conj.j  and. 

Stable,  n.  f.,  stable  (for  cattle); 
stall ;  cattle-shed. 

Staler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  expose  for 
sale,  to  put  in  the  shop  window; 
to  spread,  to  spread  out,  to 
show,  to  display,  to  make  a 
show  or  parade  of,  to  show 
off. 

e*tang,  n.  m.,  pond. 

Etape,  n.  f. ,  halting  place. 

Etat,  n.  m.,  state. 

Etats-Unis,  n.  m.,  United  States. 

e*te",  n.  m.,  summer. 


154 


VOCABULARY. 


Steindre,  t).  a.  irr.,  to  extinguish, 
to  put  out,  to  quench ;  to  des- 
troy ;  to  appease  ;  to  slake  ;  to 
obliterate  ;  to  liquidate  ;  to  re- 
deem ;  to  soften  down  ;  [sy — ], 
v.  n.  irr. ,  to  go  out ;  to  die 
away  ;  to  become  extinct. 

Stendre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  spread,  to 
stretch,  to  expand  ;  to  lay  out ; 
to  lengthen,  to  prolong  ;  to  en- 
large, to  extend,  to  widen ; 
[s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  stretch 
one's  self  out,  to  sprawl ;  to 
reach,  to  extend ;  to  expa- 
tiate. 

Stendue,  n.  f. ,  extent,  extensive- 
ness;  expanse;  compass,  length. 

Stinceler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  sparkle,  to 
flash,  to  gleam,  to  twinkle,  to 
glitter. 

e*toile,  n.  /.,  star. 

6toile*,  adj. ,  starry  ;  full  of  stars, 
studded. 

e*tonner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  astonish,  to 
astound,  to  stun;  [sj — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  be  astonished  ;  to  won- 
f  der. 

e'tourdiment,  adv. ,  inconsider- 
ately, heedlessly,  thoughtlessly. 

Strange,  adj.,  strange,  odd,  queer, 
novel ;  uncouth. 

Stranger,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  foreigner, 
stranger,  foreign,  strange. 

etre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be ;  to  exist;  to 
belong ;  to  stand  ;  to  take  part 
in ;  to  have ;  to  go ;  ce  n'est 
pas  que,  conj .  loc. ,  it  is  not  only 
that;  j'y  suis  —  I  have  it;  y 
suis-je  ?  —  am  I  right  ?  Have  I 
succeeded  ? 

etre;  n,  w,,  being,  existence, 


Streindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  bind;  to 
press  ;  to  grasp  ;  to  tie  up. 

e*tude,  n.  f. ,  study. 

Studier,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  study,  10 
practice;  [s>— ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
study,  to  make  it  .one's  study, 
to  endeavor. 

Europe,  n.  f. ,  Europe. 

Europe*en,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  Euro- 
pean ;  a  Peurope*enne — in  the 
European  style,  (maniere  being 
understood). 

eux,  per.  pro.  m.  plu. ,  they;  them. 

e*venement,  n.  m.,  event,  occur- 
rence, emergency. 

e*ventail,  n.  m.,  fan. 

e*vertuer  (s>),  v.  r.  reg.,  to  strive, 
to  struggle,  to  exert  one's 
self. 

e*viter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  avoid,  to 
shun,  to  save  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
(nav.),  to  swing,  to  stem. 

exalter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  exalt,  to  up- 
lift, to  praise. 

excellent,  adj.,  excellent,  good. 

exceller,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  excel,  to 
surpass. 

excepte*,  prep.,  except,  excepting, 
save,  but.  (See  page  88.) 

excepte"  que,  conj.  loc.,  except 
that. 

excepter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  except. 

excitation,  n.  f.,  excitation,  ex- 
citement. 

exciter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  excite,  to 
arouse,  to  stimulate,  to  irritate; 
to  quicken,  to  animate  ;  to  en- 
courage. 

exclure,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  exclude ;  to 
shut  out ;  to  debar ;  to  keep 
from,  to  leave  out. 


VOCABULARY. 


155 


excuser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  excuse,  to 
exculpate,  to  pardon  ;  to  apolo- 
gize ;  [s' — ],  to  excuse,  to  ex- 
culpate one's  self  ;  to  decline  ; 
to  make  an  apology. 

exe*cuter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  execute, 
to  perform  ;  to  accomplish,  to 
achieve,  to  fulfil  ;  [s'  — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  be  performed,  to  be 
done,  to  take  place  ;  to  sacri- 
fice one's  self ;  to  yield,  to 
comply. 

execution,  n.  f.,  execution,  per- 
formance, achievement,  fulfil- 
ment. 

exemple,  n.  m.,  example,  pattern; 
precedent,  instance  ;  copy  ;  par 
exemple  —  for  instance,  for  ex- 
ample; indeed  ;  bless  me;  upon 
my  word. 

exempt,  adj.,  exempt,  exempted, 
free  from. 

exempter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  exempt, 
to  free ;  to  dispense,  to  ex- 
cuse. 

exercer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  exercise,  to 
train  up  ;  to  practice  ;  to  exert; 
to  follow,  to  carry  on  ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg.,  to  practice. 

exercice,  n.  m.,  exercise,  practice, 
use,  work,  labor,  trouble. 

exhorter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  exhort. 

exiger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  exact,  to  re- 
quire, to  demand. 


exiler,   v.   a.   reg.,   to    exile,   to 

banish. 

existence,  n.  f. ,  existence,  being, 
exister,   v.    n.    reg. ,  to  exist ;  to 

live  ;  to  be  extant, 
expirer,  v.  a.  reg.  to  breathe  out ; 

to  exhale,  to  expire  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 

reg. ,    to    expire ;     to    breathe 

one's  last ;    to   die   away ;    to 

come  to  an  end. 
expliquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  explain, 

to  express,  to  declare,  to  teach; 

to  construe  ;  to  illustrate. 
exploit,    n.    m.,    exploit,    deed, 

achievement,  feat, 
exposer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  expose, 

to  show,  to  exhibit ;  to  explain; 

to  lay  open  ;  to  venture. 
expres,  adj.,  express,  positive. 
expression,  n.  /.,  expression,  ex- 
pressiveness. 
exprimer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  squeeze 

out,  to  extract ;  to  express,  to 

press  out ;  to  be  expressive  of ; 

to  declare,  to  utter,  to  tell ;  to 

word. 

exte*rieur,  adj.,  exterior. 
extraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  extract,  to 

take    out ;    to    make    extracts 

from  ;  to  take  a  prisoner  from 

one  prison  to  another,  or  before 

a  magistrate. 
extreme,  n.  m.,  extreme,  utmost 

point. 


F. 


Face,  n.  f.,  face ;  jeter  a  la  face 

—  to  tell  insultingly  to   one's 
face,  in  one's  presence. 
f&che*,    adj.,    angry,    displeased ; 
sorry,  vexed. 


facher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  anger,  to 
make  angry,  to  offend,  to  vex, 
to  displease  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  be  angry,  to  get  into  a  pas- 
sion, to  be  offended. 


156 


VOCABULARY. 


facheux,  adj.,  grievous,  trouble- 
some, vexatious;  difficult;  cross, 
peevish. 

facile,  adj.,  facile,  easy;  yielding; 
weak. 

facilement,  adv.,  easily. 

Fahrenheit,  physicist,  born  in 
Dantzig  (Germany),  invented 
the  thermometer  which  bears 
his  name.  (1690-1740.) 

faible,  adj.,  feeble,  weak,  faint, 
deficient,  helpless. 

f aiblesse,  n.  f. ,  weakness,  feeble- 
ness, faintness,  slenderness,  de- 
ficiency, defect ;  foible  ;  inval- 
idity. 

faillir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  fail ;  to  err, 
to  miss  ;  to  mistake,  to  be  mis- 
taken ;  to  be  near  or  on  the 
point  of,  nearly  to. 

f  aim,  n.  f. ,  hunger ;  avoir  f  aim 
—  to  be  hungry. 

faire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  make,  to  cre- 
ate ;  to  do ;  to  produce ;  to 
build  ;  to  manage,  to  contrive  ; 
to  accustom,  to  use  ;  to  carry 
on  ;  to  go  ;  to  play  ;  to  act ;  to 
set  up  for;  to  pretend;  to  cause; 
to  compel,  to  oblige  ;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  irr.,  to  do,  to  make  ;  to  act, 
to  mean  ;  to  signify  ;  to  look  ; 
to  deal ;  to  be  ;  to  fit ;  to  ar- 
range;  to  say;  [se — ],  v.  r. 
irr. ,  to  be  done  ;  to  happen  ; 
to  take  place  ;  to  make  one's 
self  ;  to  be  used  to ;  to  accus- 
tom one's  self  ;  to  pretend ; 
que  faire  —  what  is  to  be  done  ? 
avoir  beau  faire  —  to  do  in 
vain  ;  faire  semblant  —  to  pre- 
tend; faire  bien  de  —  to  do 


well ;  faire  mieux  de  —  to  do 

better. 

falloir,  v.  imper.  irr.,  to  be  ne- 
cessary; to  need  ;  must,  should, 
ought ;  to  require ;  to  be 
obliged ;  [s'en  — ],  v.  r.  irr. 
imper.,  to  be  wanting ;  to 
be  far ;  to  fall  short ;  to  be 
near  ;  tant  s'en  faut  que  —  far 
from. 

famille,  n.  /.,  family,  kindred, 
race,  tribe. 

famine,  n.  f. ,  famine. 

f ange,  n.  f. ,  dirt,  mud,  mire ; 
vileness. 

f antaisie,  n.  f. ,  imagination  ; 
fancy  ;  whim,  crotchet.  . 

fatal,  adj.,  fatal. 

fatalite",  n.  f. ,  fatality,  fatalism. 

fatigue,  n.  f.,  fatigue,  toil, 
hardship,  weariness,  exhaus- 
tion. 

fatiguer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  fatigue, 
to  tire,  to  weary,  to  tease ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  cause  fa- 
tigue to;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  fatigue  one's  self,  to  be 
jaded. 

fausse,  adj.  f.     (See/cmx.) 

f aute,  n.  f. ,  fault,  mistake,  error  ; 
want,  scarcity,  dearth. 

faux,  adj.  m.,  fausse,  /.,  false, 
untrue,  wrong;  deceitful,  er- 
roneous, artificial ;  base,  bad, 
forged  ;  out  of  tune. 

favori,  adj.  m.,  favorite,  /., 
favorite. 

fe"cond,  adj.,  fecund,  fruitful,  pro- 
lific, fertile,  rich,  teeming. 

fe'condite',  n.  f.,  fecundity,  fruit- 
fulness,  fertility. 


VOCABULARY. 


157 


feindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  feign,  to 
sham ;  to  pretend. 

felicite",  n.f.,  felicity,  bliss,  hap- 
piness. 

f Shelter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  congratu- 
late, to  felicitate,  to  give  joy. 

f  emme,  n.  f. ,  woman  ;  wife. 

femmelette,  /.,  little  woman; 
(fig.),  coward. 

Fe*nelon  (Francois  de  Salignac  de 
la  Mothe).  Preceptor  of  the 
young  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV,  and 
Archbishop  of  Cambrai  (1652- 
1715). 

f  enetre,  n.  f. ,  window. 

f er,  n.  m. ,  iron ;  head,  point ; 
sword. 

fe*rir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  strike.  (See 
page  135.) 

fermement,  adv.,  firmly,  tight. 

fermer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  shut,  to 
shut  up;  to  fasten;  to  close; 
to  encompass,  to  enclose. 

f ermete",  n.  f. ,  firmness. 

fervent,  adj.,  fervent. 

fete,  n.  f.,  festival,  holiday  ; 
saint's  day  ;  festivity ;  feast. 

feu,  n.  m.,  fire ;  light ;  heat ;  ardor, 
passion,  flame;  vivacity,  spirit; 
prendre  feu  —  to  take  fire;  to 
grow  enthusiastic. 

feu,  adj.,  late,  deceased. 

feuille,  n.  /.,  leaf;  sheet  (of 
paper). 

Feuillet  (Octave).  A  celebrated 
French  novelist  and  dramatic 
author  ;  born  in  1821,  was 
elected  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1862,  died  in  Paris, 
1890, 


feuilleter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  turn  over 
(leaves),  to  peruse,  to  run  over ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  split  into 
thin  plates. 

f  eve,  n.  f. ,  bean. 

fidele,  adj.,  faithful,  loyal,  true, 
trusty. 

fier,  adj.,  proud,  haughty. 

fier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  trust,  to  entrust ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  trust  to, 
to  rely,  to  depend  upon  ;  to  put 
one's  trust  in. 

fieVreux,  adj.  m.,  feverish;  rest- 
less. 

Figaro,  name  of  the  witty  hero 
in  Beaumarchais'  celebrated 
comedy,  "le Barbier  de  S&ottle." 

figue,  n.  f.,  fig. 

figure,  n.  f.,  figure,  form,  shape  ; 
countenance,  face ;  representa- 
tion; symbol,  type. 

figurer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  figure,  to 
represent;  [ — ],'  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
look  well,  to  match,  to  suit ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  imagine, 
to  fancy. 

file,  n.  f.,  file,  row,  line. 

filer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  spin,  to  con- 
duct, to  carry  on  ;  to  spin  out ; 
to  move;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
rope  ;  to  file  ;  to  shoot  ;  to 
purr  (of  cats) ;  (pop.),  to  be 
off. 

filial,  adj.,  filial,  childlike. 

fille,  n.f.,  daughter,  girl;  maiden; 
female;  servant-maid;  spinster. 

fils,  n.  m.,  son. 

fin,  n.f.,  end,  conclusion,  termi- 
nation, issue,  aim,  design,  view, 
object,  intention  ;  sans  fin  — 
endlessly. 


158 


VOCABULARY. 


fin,  adj.,  fine,  thin,  refined;  acute, 
ingenious  ;  delicate,  polite  ; 
shrewd,  cunning,  sly  ;  small. 

finir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  finish,  to  com- 
plete, to  end,  to  terminate ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  finish,  to  be  at 
an  end,  to  be  over,  to  expire. 

fixer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  fix,  to  fasten  ; 
to  settle  ;  to  determine. 

flamboyant,  adj.,  flaming,  blazing, 

Flammarion  (Camille).  Astron- 
omer and  author  and  member 
of  the  French  Academy.  Born 
at  Montigny-le-Roi,  in  1842. 

flanc,  n.  m.,  flank,  side. 

flatter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  flatter,  to 
tickle,  to  caress,  to  cajole,  to 
stroke,  to  coax,  to  fawn;  [se — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  flatter  one's  self, 
to  arrogate  to  one's  self. 

Fleshier  (Esprit),  celebrated  ora- 
tor and  preacher.  Bishop  of 
Lavaur,  and  afterwards  of 
Nimes  (1632-1710). 

fle*chir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  bend,  to  bow; 
to  move,  to  melt ;  to  persuade, 
to  touch. 

fleur,  n.  /.,  flower,  bloom,  blos- 
som ;  choice,  beat,  pick  ;  de 
fleur  en  fleur  —  from  flower  to 
flower ;  en  fleur  —  in  bloom. 

fleuri,  part.,  flowery,  florid,  agree- 
able. 

fleurir,  v.  n.  reg. ,  (with  certain  irr. 
forms,  page  138),  to  flower,  to 
blow ;  to  bloom,  to  blossom ; 
to  thrive,  to  flourish,  to  be 
prosperous;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
ornament  with  flowers. 

fleuve,  n.  m.,  river,  stream  (which 
empties  into  the  sea). 


Florian  (Jean-Pierre  Claris  de), 
author  and  fabulist  (1755-94). 

florissant,  adj.,  flourishing,  pros- 
perous. 

flot,  n.  m.,  wave,  billow,  flood, 
surge;  tide;  crowd  (of  persons) ; 
stream,  torrent. 

Hotter,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  float,  to  waft; 
to  be  irresolute,  to  fluctuate,  to 
waver. 

foi,  n.  /.,  faith,  belief;  fidelity; 
trust ;  credit,  evidence  ;  proof, 
testimony ;  confidence. 

fois,  n.  /.,  time  (repetition). 

fol,  adj.  m.     (See  fou). 

folie,  n.  /.,  folly,  madness. 

folle,  adj.f.     (See  fou). 

follement,  adv.,  foolishly,  madly. 

fonction,  n.  /.,  function,  office, 
duty. 

fond,  n.  m.,  bottom,  ground; 
foundation ;  depth ;  center, 
heart,  further  end,  most  remote 
part ;  basis  ;  au  fond  —  in  the 
main,  at  the  bottom. 

fonder,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  lay  the  found- 
ation, to  build,  to  erect,  to 
found  ;  to  ground,  to  establish, 
to  endow;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  be  founded,  to  be  grounded, 
to  rely,  to  be  concentrated,  to 
center. 

fontaine,  n.  /.,  fountain  ;  spring. 

force,  n.  /.,  force,  strength,  might, 
power ;  violence,  constraint ; 
command ;  fortitude,  valor. 

forcer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  force,  to 
compel ;  to  break  open,  to 
wrench. 

forclore,  v.  a.  irr.,  (jur),  to  fore- 
close. 


VOCABULARY. 


159 


foret,  n.f.,  forest. 

forfaire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  fail  in 
one's  duty ;  to  trespass ;  to 
forfeit;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr.,  to  for- 
feit (fief). 

forme,  n.  /.,  form,  shape,  figure, 
make  ;  mode,  frame,  mould. 

former,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  form,  to 
frame,  to  fashion ;  to  cut  out, 
to  mould,  to  season  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg. ,  to  be  made ;  to  be 
bred ;  to  assume  ;  to  improve. 

fort,  n.  m.,  strong  part ;  strong- 
hold, fort ;  strength,  skill ; 
depth,  heat,  height ;  center. 

fort,  adj,.  strong,  stout,  powerful, 
violent,  plentiful ;  hard,  dif- 
ficult ;  sturdy,  robust ;  severe. 

fort,  adv.,  very,  very  much, 
highly,  extremely,  vastly;  hard, 
forcibly. 

fortement,  adv.,  strongly,  vig- 
orously, stoutly,  forcibly,  much; 
exceedingly. 

fortune,  n.  /.,  fortune,  chance, 
wealth ;  (myth)  fortune. 

fou,  n.  m.,  folle,  n.  /.,  madman, 
madwoman,  madcap ;  jester, 
fool. 

fou,  fol,  adj.  m.,  folle,  /.  (fol  is 
used  before  a  noun  beginning 
with  a  vowel  or  an  h  mute), 
foolish,  mad,  demented. 

foudre,  n.  /.,  thunder,  thunder- 
bolt, lightning. 

fougueux,  adj.,  furious,  hot,  hasty, 
impetuous,  ardent,  spirited, 
animated,  passionate,  mettle- 
some. 

foule,  n.  /.,  crowd  ;  throng  ;  mul- 
titude. 


fouler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  tread,  to 
trample  on,  to  trample  down, 
to  oppress ;  to  sprain ;  to 
press. 

f ourmi,  n.  f. ,  ant. 

f  ourmiliere,  n.  f. ,  ant-hill. 

fournir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  furnish,  to 
provide,  to  supply,  to  stock,  to 
store ;  to  make  up,  to  complete ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  contribute, 
to  supply,  to  be  sufficient,  to 
suffice. 

fraiche,  adj.  f.     (Seefrais.) 

frais,  adj.  m.,  fraiche,  /.,  cool, 
fresh,  coldish ;  recent,  new, 
youthful ;  ruddy,  florid. 

fraise,  n.  f. ,  strawberry. 

franc,  adj.  m.,  tranche,  /.,  free, 
frank. 

francais,  adj.,  French. 

Francais,  n.  m.,  Frenchman. 

Francais,  n.  m.,  French. 

Francaise,  n.  f. ,  Frenchwoman. 

France,  n.  f. ,  France. 

franche,  adj.  f.     (See  franc.) 

Franche-Comte,  n.  f. ,  Province  in 
France,  the  capital  is  Besan^on. 

franchement,  adv.,  frankly,  free- 
ly, openly,  plainly,  sincerely, 
boldly,  ingenuously. 

franchise,  n.  f. ,  franchise,  exemp- 
tion, immunity,  freedom;  frank- 
ness, sincerity,  candor,  plain- 
ness. 

Francois,  n.  m.,  Francis. 

Frank  (Felix),  poet  and  critic. 
Born  at  Paris  in  1837. 

Franklin  (Benjamin),  an  Amer- 
ican statesman  and  savant,  in- 
ventor of  the  lightning-rod. 
(1706-1790.) 


160 


VOCABULARY. 


frapper,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  strike, 
to  smite,  to  slap,  to  tap,  to  hit, 
to  make  an  impression  on,  to 
knock,  to  rap ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  strike  one's  self;  to 
strike  each  other,  one  another  ; 
to  have  one's  mind  filled  with 
certain  thoughts. 

fraternit^,  n.  /.,  fraternity ; 
brotherhood. 

f rein,  n.  in. ,  bit,  bridle ;  curb, 
check  ;  brake  ;  restraint. 

fre*mir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  rustle ;  to 
murmur  ;  to  move,  to  shudder; 
to  quiver ;  to  vibrate ;  to 
tremble. 

frere,  n.  m.,  brother. 

f rire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  fry  ;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  irr.,  to  be  cooked  by  fry- 
ing. 


f  rissonnant,  adj. ,  shuddering, 
shivering. 

frissonner,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  shiver, 
to  shudder. 

front,  n.  m.,  forehead,  brow, 
face,  front ;  boldness. 

f rontiere,  n.  f. ,  frontier,  border, 
confine,  limit. 

frugal,  adj.,  frugal. 

fruit,  n.  m. ,  fruit ;  offspring,  ad- 
vantage ;  benefit,  profit. 

fuir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  flee,  to  fly;  to 
run  away  ;  to  elude,  to  shun, 
to  leak  (paint.)  ;  [ — ],  v.  a. 
irr.,  to  fly,  to  avoid,  to  shrink 
from. 

fumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  smoke;  to  ma- 
nure ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  smoke; 
to  reek  ;  to  fret  and  fume. 

furieux,  adj.,  furious. 


G. 


Gager,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  lay  a  wager, 
to  bet;  to  hire;  to  pay  wages  to. 

gageure,  n.  /.,  wager,  bet. 

gagner,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  gain;  to 
earn ;  to  win ;  to  allure,  to 
attract ;  to  reach ;  to  get,  to 
arrive  at ;  to  catch. 

gai,  adj.,  gay. 

gaiment,  adv.,  gaily,  merrily; 
briskly ;  cheerfully. 

gaite  or  gaiete*,  n.  /.,  gaiety, 
merriment,  mirth,  glee;  cheer- 
fulness, mirthfulness,  sportive- 
ness,  good  humor ;  frolic. 

Galatie,  n.  f. ,  Galatia,  a  country 
in  the  center  of  Asia  Minor. 

galet,  n.  m., pebble ;  shingle ;  gravel. 

Galswinthe,  n.  f.,  Galswinthe 
was  the  daughter  of  Althana- 


gilde,  king  of  the  Visigoths ; 
she  married  Chilperic  in  567, 
and  was  strangled  by  the  order 
of  Fre'de'gonde  her  rival. 

garcon,  n.  m.,  boy,  lad;  bachelor; 
man, fellow;  shop-boy;  waiter. 

garde,  n.  f. ,  keeping  ;  defence  ; 
watching,  guard,  watch;  nurse; 
custody  ;  charge;  n'avoir  garde 
de  —  not  to  have  the  inclina- 
tion, to  be  far  from  ;  prendre 
garde  a  —  to  pay  attention  to  ; 
prendre  garde  de  —  to  beware 
not  to.  (See  prendre.) 

garder,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  keep,  to  pre- 
serve, to  save  ;  to  take  care  of, 
to  nurse ;  to  guard,  protect, 
defend;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
keep  from. 


VOCABULARY. 


161 


gater,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  spoil,  to  dam- 
age, to  hurt,  to  injure,  to  im- 
pair ;  to  taint,  to  corrupt. 

Gaule,  n.  f.,  Gaul. 

Gaulois,  n.  m.,  Gaul  (inhabitant 
of  Gaul);  Gallic  language. 

gaulois,  adj.,  Gallic. 

gazon,  n.  m.,  grass  ;  turf. 

geindre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  moan,  to 
whine. 

g6mir,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  groan ;  to 
moan  ;  to  sigh  ;  to  bewail. 

gemme,  n.  /.,  precious  stone; 
[ — ],  adj,  of  gems  ;  sel  gemme 
— rock  salt. 

general,  n.  m.,  general. 

general,  adj.,  general;  en  ge*ne*- 
ral  —  in  general,  generally. 

gene"ralement,  adv.,  generally, 
in  general. 

genet,  n.  m.,  broom  (plant). 

Geneve,  n.f.,  Geneva. 

ge*nie,  n.  m.,  genius,  spirit. 

genou,  n.  m.,  knee  ;  a  genoux  — 
on  one's  knees  (kneeling). 

genre,  n.  m.,  genus ;.  species  ; 
kind,  sort ;  fashion,  taste ; 
style,  manner;  gender;  (paint.), 
genre. 

gens,  n.  m.  plu.,  people,  persons, 
men,  hands ;  domestics,  ser- 
vants, attendants. 

gentilhomme,  n.  m.,  nobleman. 

gerbe,  n.f.,  sheaf,  ray  (of  light). 

gesir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  lie.  (See  p. 
55,  43.) 

glacial,  adj.,  glacial. 

gloire,  n.  f. ,  glory. 

glorieux,  adj.,  glorious;  glorified, 
blessed ;  vainglorious,  con- 
ceited ;  proud. 


glorifier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  glorify,  to 
give  glory  to  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  glorify  one's  self,  to 
boast. 

gorge,  n.  f. ,  throat ;  defile,  strait, 
narrow  pass ;  gorge. 

Goth,  n.  m.,  Goth. 

gouffre,  n.  m.,  gulf,  whirlpool. 

Gourdon  (Georges),  poet  and  dram- 
atist. Born  at  Lurgeres,  in 
1852. 

gout,  n.  m.,  taste,  savor,  relish, 
smell ;  inclination  ;  style  ;  lik- 
ing ;  manner ;  fashion. 

gouter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  taste,  to 
relish  ;  to  like,  to  approve  of ; 
to  enjoy;  to  smell;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg. ,  to  taste,  to  smell ;  to  try, 
to  make  a  trial  of  ;  to  lunch. 

goutte,  n.  f.,  drop,  small  quantity; 
goutte  a  goutte  —  drop  by  drop. 

gouvernail,  n.  m.,  rudder,  helm. 

gouvernement,  n.  m.,  govern- 
ment. 

gouverner,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  govern, 
to  rule,  to  command,  to  man- 
age, to  direct,  to  look  to  ;  to 
take  care  of. 

gouverneur,  n.  m.,  governor, 
tutor. 

grace,?!.  /.,  grace;  favor,  pardon; 
mercy,  indulgence ;  graceful- 
ness, elegance ;  thanks ;  de 
grace,  for  pity's  sake. 

rendre  grace  (see  rendre),  to  give 
thanks,  or  to  return  thanks. 

grain,  n.  m.,  grain ;  berry;  bead. 

grammaire,  n.  f. ,  grammar. 

grand,  adj. ,  great,  large ;  high, 
lofty,  tall ;  grand,  huge,  capa- 
cious. 


162 


VOCABULARY. 


grandeur,  n.  /.,  greatness,  mag- 
nitude ;  size  ;  tallness,  height ; 
dignity  ;  grandeur  ;  grace. 

grandiose,  adj.,  grand,  imposing. 

grandir,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  grow  ; 
to  grow  up,  to  spring  up ;  to 
grow  tall,  to  grow  big ;  to  in- 
crease ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
make  one's  self  taller,  to  be- 
come, to  grow  taller ;  to  be- 
come greater,  to  raise  one's  self, 
to  rise. 

grand'mere,  n.  f. ,  grandmother. 

Grandmougin  (  Charles  -  Jean), 
poet.  He  has  given  some  bril- 
liant lectures  on  poetry  in  Paris 
and  in  other  cities  of  Europe. 
Born  at  Vesoul,  in  1850. 

grec,  adj.  7/1.,  grecque,  /.,  Greek. 

grenier,  n.  m.,  granary,  corn- 
loft,  loft;  garret. 

gre*sil,  n.  m.,  sleet. 

greve,  n.  f. ,  strand. 

Grignan  (Comtesse  de),  daughter 
of  Mine,  de  Sevigne  (1648- 
1705). 

gril,  n.  f. ,  gridiron ;  etre  sur  le 
gril  —  to  be  upon  thorns. 

gronder,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  chide,  to 
scold,  to  reprimand  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 


reg. ,  to  growl,  to  grumble  ;  to 

rumble  ;  to  roar  ;  to  mutter  ;  to 

snarl. 

gros,  adj.,  large,  fat,  big,  bulky, 
grossir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  enlarge,  to 

augment,  to  increase  ;  to  swell, 

to  swell  out ;  to  magnify. 
grouper,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  group; 

[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  form  into 

groups,  to  be  grouped. 
guere,  adv.,  but  little,  not  much, 

not  very;    not   long ;    hardly, 

scarcely,   very  few ;    ne  .  .  . 

guere  —  (see  P.  II,  page  61). 
gue*rir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  heal,  to  cure; 

[ — ],    v.   n.  reg.,    to  heal  up; 

to     recover    one's   health ;    to 

be  cured  ;  to  get  rid,  to  be  rid 

of. 
guerre,  n.  f. ,  war  ;  f aire  guerre 

—  to  wage  war  ;   en  guerre  — 

at  war. 
guerrier,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  warrior; 

warlike,  martial, 
guide,  n.  m.,  guide;  guide-book. 
guider,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  guide,  to  lead 

or  conduct ;  to  direct. 
Guizot     (Frangois  -  Pierre  -  Guil- 

laume),    statesman,    professor, 

historian  (1787-1875). 


Habile,  ad;.,  able,  clever,  skilful, 
expert,  sharp,  quick,  qualified ; 
capable. 

habilite",  n.f.,  ability,  skill,  clever- 
ness, skilfulness. 

habit,  n.  m.,  garment,  dress,  ap- 
parel, garb ;  coat. 

habitant,  n.  m.,  inhabitant,  resi- 
dent. 


habiter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  inhabit, 
to  dwell  in,  to  live  in,  to  reside 
in,  to  frequent. 

habituer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  use,  to  ac- 
custom, to  habituate,  to  inure. 

thabler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  brag,  to 
boast. 

thache,  n.  f.,  hatchet,  axe. 

thagard,  adj.,  haggard,  wild. 


VOCABULARY. 


163 


thaie,  n.  /.,  hedge, 
thaillon,  n.  m.,  rag,  tatters, 
thaine,  n.  f.,  hate,  hatred,  spite. 
thair,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  hate,  to  detest, 

to  loathe, 
thaler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  haul;  [ — ], 

v.  n.  reg. ,  to  tan,  to  burn, 
thaleter,  v.  n.,  to  pant  for  breath, 

to  puff. 

thalle,  n.  /.,  hall, 
thalte,  n.  /.,  stop,  halting  place, 
thamac,  n.  m.,  hammock, 
thameau,  n.  in.,  hamlet, 
fhanche,  n.  /.,  hip,  haunch. 
thangar,  n.  in.,  shed,  out-house, 
thanneton,  n.  in.,  may-bug, 
t  banter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  haunt, 
thapper,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  snap,   to 

snap  up,  to  catch, 
tharangue,  n.  /.,  speech,  address, 

oration, 
tharasser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  harass,  to 

trouble,  to  tire  out. 
tharceler,  v.   a.  reg.    or  irr.,  to 

attack  repeatedly,  to  torment. 
thardes,  n.  f.  plur.,  clothes, 
thardi,  adj.,  bold,  audacious. 
thareng,  n.  m.,  herring, 
fhargneux,  adj.,  snappish,  cross, 

vicious. 
t  haricot,    n.    m.,    kidney -bean; 

mutton-stew. 
harmonieux,    adj. ,    harmonious, 

musical,  friendly  (of  colors). 
tharnais  (or  tharnois),  n.  m.,  har- 
ness, horse-trappings, 
tharpe,  n.  f.  harp, 
thasard,  n.  m.,  chance,  hazard, 

risk,  accident, 
thasarder,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hazard,  to 

risk,  to  venture,  to  run  the  risk. 


thate,  n.  /.,  haste. 

t  hater,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hasten,  to 
forward,  to  hurry,  to  hurry  on; 
to  push  on. 

thaut,  adv.,  high;  loud;  aloud; 
loudly;  parler  haut  —  to  speak 
out,  to  speak  aloud ;  la-haut 
—  up  there,  up  above. 

t  hauteur,  n.  f.,  height,  emi- 
nence. 

t  Havre,  or  le  Havre,  n.  m.,  Havre; 
an  important  seaport  in  north- 
ern France,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Seine. 

t  Helvetic,  n.  f. ,  Helvetia,  a  name 
for  Switzerland. 

thennir,  v.  n.,  to  neigh. 

thennissement,  n.  m.,  neighing. 

tHenri,  n.  m.,  Henry. 

t  Henri  IV  — Henry  IV.,  son  of 
Anthony  of  Bourbon,  and 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  Queen  of  Na- 
varre ;  he  succeeded  Henry 
III.  and  was  the  first  King  of 
the  house  of  Bourbon  (1589- 
1610). 

Henriette,  n.  f. ,  Henrietta. 

Henriot,  n.  m.,  diminutive  of 
Henri. 

the*raut,  n.  m.,  herald. 

herbe,  n.  f. ,  herb,  grass. 

the'risser,  v.  a.,  to  bristle,  to 
bristle  up. 

he'riter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  inherit, 
to  be  heir  ;  to  succeed. 

he*ritier,  n.  in.,  heir,  inheritor. 

heroine,  n.  f. ,  heroine. 

he*roique,  adj.,  heroic. 

he*roisme,  n.  m.,  heroism. 

the"ron,  n.  m.,  heron. 

the*ros,  n.  m.,  hero. 


164 


VOCABULARY. 


he"siter,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  hesitate,  to 
falter,  to  waver,  to  be  doubtful. 

thetre,  n.  m.,  beech-tree. 

heure,  n.  f. ,  hour ;  de  bonne 
heure  —  early. 

heureux,  adj. ,  happy ;  blessed, 
blissful;  lucky,  fortunate;  pros- 
perous, favorable,  auspicious  ; 
good ;  excellent,  rare. 

theurter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  run 
against,  to  knock  against,  to 
strike  ;  to  hit ;  to  jostle  ;  to 
shock,  to  hurt,  to  offend,  to 
dash,  to  knock  (at  a  door). 

thibou,  n.  m.,  owl. 

thideux,  adj.,  ugly,  hideous. 

hier,  adv.,  yesterday. 

t  hierarchic,  n.  /.,  hierarchy. 

thisser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hoist. 

histoire,  n.  f. ,  history,  story. 

historique,  adj.,  historical. 

hiver,  n.  m.,  winter. 

fhobereau,  n.  m.,  country  noble- 
man. 

thocher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  wag,  to 
shake,  to  toss. 

tHollande,  n.  f. ,  Holland,  a  small 
country  in  the  north  of  Europe 
on  the  North  Sea ;  also  called 
Netherlands. 

thomard,  n.  m.,  lobster. 

Homere,  n.  in.,  Homer. 

homme,  n.  m.,  man. 

tHongrie,  n.  /.,  Hungary;  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire. 

honnete,  adj.,  honest,  upright, 
virtuous,  becoming,  modest, 
civil,  kind,  courteous,  polite ; 
reasonable ;  suitable,  proper. 

konneur,  n.  m.,  honor,  credit. 


honorer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  honor,  to 
pay  honor,  to  do  credit  to,  to 
be  an  honor  to;  [s' — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  acquire  honor  ;  to  do 
one's  self  honor  ;  to  think,  to 
deem  ;  to  take  pride  in. 

thonte,  n.  f.,  shame,  disgrace, 
reproach;  avoir  honte  —  to  be 
ashamed. 

thonteux,  adj.,  ashamed;  bash- 
ful, shy;  shameful,  disgraceful, 
scandalous,  disreputable. 

thoquet,  n.  m.,  hiccough. 

t  horde,  n.f.,  horde,  band  of  crim- 
inals. 

thorion,  n.  m.,  blow,  thump. 

horizon,  n.  m.,  horizon. 

horreur,  n.  f. ,  horror  ;  horrid  or 
shocking  thing ;  awe,  abhor- 
rence ;  avoir  horreur  de  —  to 
have  a  horror  of,  to  abhor. 

fhors,  prep.,  out;  beyond;  but, 
except,  save  ;  hors  de  —  out- 
side of. 

h6tel-Dieu,  n.  m,,  hospital. 

thotte,  n.f.,  dosser,  basket  (held 
by  straps,  to  be  carried  on  the 
back). 

thoublon,  n.  m.,  hops. 

thouille,  n,  f.,  coal. 

thoule,  n.f.,  rolling  wave,  surge, 
swell  (of  the  sea). 

thousse,  n.  f.,  cover  (for  furni- 
ture). 

thoux,  n.  m.,  holly. 

Huber  (Pierre),  Swiss  naturalist 
(1777-1840). 

thuche,  n.  f.,  trough. 

thuer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hoot, 

Hugo  (Victor-Marie),  illustrious 
poet,  dramatist,  novelist,  and 


VOCABULARY. 


165 


statesman.  Chief  of  the  roman- 
tic school.  Born  at  Besangon 
in  1802,  died  in  Paris  in 
1885. 

tHuguenot,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  Hu- 
guenot. 

thuit,  adj.,  eight. 

thuitaine,  n.  /.,  week;  dans  la 
huitaine  —  in  the  course  of  a 
week. 

thuitieme,  adj.,  eighth. 


humain,   adj. ,  human ;   humane. 

humanit^,  n.  f. ,  humanity  ;  hu- 
man nature  ;  mankind  ;  plu. , 
humanities. 

thune,  n.  /.,  top  (of  a  boat). 

thuppe,  n.  f.,  tuft. 

thure,  n.  f.,  head  (of  a  boar). 

thurler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  howl. 

thussard,  n.  m.,  hussar  (a  kind  of 
cavalryman). 

thutte,  n.  /.,  hut,  cabin. 


I. 


Ici,  adv.,  here,  hither,  in  this 
place  ;  now. 

ide*al,  n.  m.,  ideal. 

ide*e,  n.  f.,  idea,  notion,  percep- 
tion ;  fancy ;  sketch ;  mind, 
head  ;  thought ;  taste. 

idylle,  n.  f. ,  idyl. 

igne*,  adj.,  fiery,  igneous. 

il,  per.  pro.  m.,  he  ;  it ;  there; 
plu.,  ils,  they. 

illusion,  n.  f. ,  illusion. 

illustre,  adj.,  illustrious. 

imagination,  n.  f.,  imagination. 

imaginer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  imagine,  to 
conceive,  to  contrive;  to  think. 

imbe*cillit£,  n.  f.,  stupidity,  im- 
becility. 

imboire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  imbue ;  to 
impress,  to  tincture. 

imitation,  n.  f. ,  imitation. 

imiter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  imitate,  to 
copy,  to  mimic,  to  take  off. 

imme*diatement,  adv. ,  immedi- 
ately; at  once. 

immense,  adj.,  immense,  infinite; 
boundless. 

immensit6,  n.  f.,  immensity,  infi- 
niteness,  infinitude. 


immobile,  adj.,  immovable,  mo- 
tionless. 

immortaliser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  im- 
mortalize. 

impatience,  n.  f. ,  impatience  ; 
eagerness ;  restlessness. 

impenetrable,  adj.,  impenetrable, 
impervious  ;  unfathomable,  in- 
scrutable. 

imperfection,  n.  f. ,  imperfection, 
defect. 

impe*ritie,  n.  f. ,  incapacity,  un- 
skilfulness,  ignorance. 

impie,  adj.,  impious,  ungodly. 

importer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  import,  to 
introduce;  [ — ],  v.  imper.,  to 
import,  to  be  of  moment,  of 
consequence,  to  concern ;  to 
matter,  to  signify;  n'importe  — 
no  matter,  never  mind. 

importuner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  im- 
portune, to  annoy,  to  plague, 
to  tease,  to  trouble. 

impossible,  adj.,  impossible. 

impr^gner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  impreg- 
nate. • 

impression,  n.  /.,  impression; 
impress  ;  print ;  printing. 


166 


VOCABULARY. 


improviser,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  im- 
provise, to  extemporize,  to  pro- 
duce extempore. 

imprudent,  adj.,  imprudent,  unad- 
vised, unwise,  incautious.  . 

imputer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  impute,  to 
attribute ;  to  ascribe  to ;  to 
charge  with  ;  to  deduct. 

inaccoutume*,  adj.,  unusual,  un- 
wonted. 

inattendu,  adj.,  unexpected. 

incertain,  adj.,  uncertain,  ques- 
tionable ;  unsettled,  unsteady, 
inconstant. 

inciter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  incite,  to  ex- 
cite. 

incliner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  incline,  to 
slope,  to  stoop ;  to  bow,  to 
bend;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
incline,  to  lean ;  to  be  dis- 
posed. 

inclus,  part.,  enclosed;  ci-inclus 
—  herein  enclosed. 

incomprehensible,  adj.,  incom- 
prehensible, unintelligible,  in- 
scrutable. 

inconnu,  adj.,  unknown. 

inconsequent,  adj.,  inconsistent. 

inconvenient,  n.  m.,  inconve- 
nience ;  disadvantage,  objec- 
tion. 

inculte,  adj. ,  uncultivated ;  un- 
tilled,  waste;  unpolished,  rude. 

Inde,  n.  /.,  India;  les  Indes  — 
the  Indies. 

indefini,  adj.,  indefinite. 

indemne,  adj.,  unharmed,  unin- 
jured, compensated. 
•indemniser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  compen- 
sate, to  make  good,  to  indem- 
nify. 


indemnity,  n.  /.,  compensation,  , 
indemnity. 

indicatif,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  indica- 
tive, indicative  mood. 

indigner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  render  in- 
dignant ;  [s*  — ] ,  v.  r.  reg. ,  to 
be  indignant. 

indiquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  indicate, 
to  show,  to  point  out ;  to  direct 
to,  to  inform  of,  to  acquaint 
with,  to  appoint. 

indiscret,  adj.,  indiscreet,  incon- 
siderate, unwary  ;  inquisitive  ; 
injudicious. 

indomptable,  adj.,  untamable, 
ungovernable. 

induire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  lead  ;  to  in- 
duce ;  to  infer. 

indulgent,  adj.,  lenient,  indul- 
gent, considerate. 

industrieux,  adj.,  ingenious,  skil- 
ful, industrious. 

ineptie,  n.  /.,  ineptness,  foolish- 
ness. 

inertie,  n.  /.,  inertia. 

inevitable,  adj.,  inevitable,  un- 
avoidable. 

inexpugnable,  adj. ,  impregna- 
ble. 

infaisable,  adj.,  impossible,  im- 
practicable. 

innni,  n.  m.,  infinite. 

infini,  adj.,  infinite,  boundless, 
endless ;  numberless. 

infiniment,  adv.,  infinitely,  with- 
out end ;  extremely,  exceed- 
ingly. 

infinitif,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  infini- 
tive, infinitive  mood. 

infortune,  n.  /.,  misfortune,  ad- 
versity. 


VOCABULARY. 


167 


inge"rer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  introduce 
into  the  stomach  through  the 
rnouth  ;  [s* — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
meddle  with. 

ingrat,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  unthank- 
ful, ungrateful ;  thankless  ;  un- 
profitable, unfruitful,  sterile  ; 
unpleasant. 

inhabile,  a<i/.,  unskilful,  unquali- 
fied, incapable. 

innocent,  adj.,  innocent. 

innome,  adj.,  unnamed,  name- 
less. 

inquiet,  adj.,  anxious. 

inquie'ter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  make  un- 
easy, to  disturb  ;  to  trouble  ; 
[V  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be  uneasy, 
to  be  anxious. 

inscrire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  inscribe,  to 
enter,  to  register,  to  impanel 
(jury);  [s'  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  in- 
scribe one's  self  ;  to  enter  one's 
name. 

insecte,  n.  m.,  insect. 

insens6,  n.  m.,  madman;  fool. 

insouciance,  n.  /.,  carelessness, 
thoughtlessness,  heedlessness, 
listlessness. 

insouciant,  adj. ,  careless,  thought- 
less, heedless,  listless. 

inspiration,  n.  f. ,  inspiration. 

inspirer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  inspire  ;  to 
breathe,  to  suggest,  to  prompt ; 
to  instil ;  to  inhale. 

instant,  n.  m.,  instant,  mo- 
ment. 

instinct,  n.  m.,  instinct. 

instruire,  v.-a.  irr.,  to  instruct, 
to  teach,  to  inform,  to  ac- 
quaint ;  (jur.),  to  investigate, 
to  examine,  to  proceed;  [s'  — ], 


v.  r.  irr.,  to  improve  one's  self ; 
to  inform  ;  to  be  the  subject  of 
inquiry. 

intellectuel,  adj.,  intellectual. 

intelligence,  n.  f.,  intellect; 
intelligence ;  understanding ; 
knowledge  ;  harmony  ;  corre- 
spondence ;  spirit ;  skill,  abil- 
ity. 

intelligent,  adj.,  intelligent. 

intense,  adj.,  intense,  violent, 
severe. 

interdire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  prohibit, 
to  forbid,  to  interdict ;  to 
amaze,  to  coufound  ;  (jur.),  to 
declare  a  man  incapable  of 
managing  his  own  affairs. 

inte*ressant,  adj.,  interesting. 

interesser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  interest, 
to  concern ;  to  give  a  share 
to. 

inte"ret,  n.  m. ,  interest,  concern  ; 
share  ;  plu.,  interest. 

interrogativement,  adv. ,  inter- 
rogatively. 

intervalle,  n.  m.,  interval,  inter- 
stice ;  intervening  space. 

intervenir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  intervene, 
to  interfere ;  to  interpose  ;  to 
occur. 

intime,  n.  m.  f.  and  adj.,  inti- 
mate ;  inmost. 

intituler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  entitle,  to 
call. 

intrgpide,  adj.,  intrepid,  daunt- 
less, fearless,  resolute,  bold. 

introduire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  intro- 
duce, to  show  in,  to  bring 
in  ;  to  conduct ;  [s' — ],  v.  r. 
irr. ,  to  gain  admittance ;  to 
intrude. 


168 


VOCABULARY. 


inventer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  invent,  to 
find  out,  to  contrive ;  to  im- 
agine, to  fabricate,  to  forge. 

invit6,  n.  m.,  guest. 

inviter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  invite,  to 
bid,  to  beg ;  to  allure,  to  at- 
tract, to  tempt. 

ironic,  n.  f. ,  irony. 

ironique,  adj.,  ironic,  ironical. 


irre*gulier,  adj.,  irregular. 

irriter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  irritate,  to 
incense  ;  to  anger,  to  exasper- 
ate ;  to  provoke,  to  excite,  to 
enrage. 

issir,  v.  a.  irr.  (page  138),  to  be 
born,  to  spring  from,  to  issue. 

Italic,  n.  /.,  Italy. 

italien,  adj.,  m.,  Italian. 


Jacobin,  n.  m.,  refers  to  the 
Jacobin  club,  a  society  com- 
posed of  the  most  visionary 
members  of  the  republican 
party  during  the  Revolution, 
and  holding  their  meetings  in 
the  convent  of  the  Jacobins, 
Rue  Saint  -Honors',  at  Paris, 
from  1790  to  1794. 

jaloux,  adj.,  jealous;  desirous, 
anxious  ;  inclining  on  one  side 
(as  of  a  carriage,  etc.). 

jamais,  adv. ,  ever,  never ;  a  ja- 
mais,  pour  jamais  —  forever ; 
au  grand  jamais  —  never,  to 
all  eternity ;  ne  .  .  .  jamais, 
never. 

Janvier,  n.  m.,  January. 

Japon,  n.  m.,  Japan. 

jardin,  n.  m.,  garden. 

jaune,  adj.,  yellow. 

jaunir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  make  yellow, 
to  dye  yellow ;  [— ],  v.  n. 
reg.,  to  grow  yellow,  to  turn 
yellow. 

Java,  n.  m.,  Java. 

je,  per.  pro.,  I. 

Jean,  n.  m.,  John. 

Jerusalem,  a  city  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  formerly  capital  of 


Palestine,  later  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  same  name  (1099- 
1187). 

jeter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  throw,  to  cast, 
to  fling,  to  hurl ;  to  throw 
down,  to  shoot  out,  to  shoot 
forth;  to  empty;  [se — ],  v.  r. 
reg. ,  to  throw  one's  self  ;  to  fall 
on,  to  fall  upon. 

jeu,  n.  m. ,  play  ;  sport ;  fun  ; 
game. 

jeune,  adj.,  young. 

jeune,  n.  m. ,  fast,  fasting,  ab- 
stinence from  food. 

jeunesse,  n.  f. ,  youth. 

joie,  n.  f.,  joy,  gladness;  glee; 
mirth. 

joindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  join,  to  put 
together  ;  to  add  ;  to  unite  ;  to 
annex  ;  to  overtake ;  to  come 
up  to  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  join  ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  be  adja- 
cent, contiguous. 

joint,  part. ,  joined,  added  ;  ci- 
joint  —  herewith. 

joli,  adj.,  pretty;  nice  ;  fine. 

Joseph,  n.  m.,  Joseph. 

jouer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  play;  to  stake; 
to  move;  to  perform,  to  act;  to 
feign,  to  imitate;  to  make  game 


VOCABULARY. 


169 


of ;  [— ],  v.  n,  reg.,  to  play,  to 
sport ;  to  trifle ;  to  run  the 
risk  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  sport, 
to  make  game  of,  to  baffle ;  to 
do  with  facility. 

joujou,  n.  m.,  plaything. 

jour,  n.  in. ,  day,  light ;  respirer 
le  jour  —  to  enter  into  life  ; 
vieux  jours  —  old  age  ;  grand 
jour  —  broad  daylight. 

Jourdan  (Louis),  journalist  and 
author.  Born  at  Toulon  in 
1810,  died  at  Algiers  1881. 

journe*e,  n.  /.,  day;  day's  work; 
day's  journey. 

joyeux,  adj.,  joyful,  merry,  cheer- 
ful, mirthful. 

jugement,  n.  m. ,  judgment,  opin- 
ion, view;  trial,  sentence ; 
mettre  en  jugement  —  to  in- 
dict. 

juger,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  judge  ;  to  con- 
jecture, to  imagine  ;  to  try;  to 
sentence;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
judge ;  to  pass  sentence,  to 
think,  to  deem. 


juillet,  n.  m.,  July. 

jumeau,  adj.  m.,  jumelle,  /., 
twin. 

jument,  n.  f. ,  mare. 

Jura,  n.  m.,  Jura,  mountains 
between  France  and  Switzer- 
land. 

jusqu'a  ce  que,  conj.  loc.,  until. 

jusque,  prep. ,  to,  even,  as  far  as, 
till,  until ;  down  to  ;  up  to ; 
jusqu'ou  —  how  far;  jusqu'a  — 
until,  till. 

juste,  n.  m. ,  upright  man  ;  what 
is  just. 

juste,  adj.,  just,  equitable,  law- 
ful, appropriate  ;  apposite  ; 
right ;  upright,  righteous  ;  fit, 
proper,  exact ;  il  est  juste  — 
it  is  just,  lawful,  proper,  exact. 

juste,  adv.,  just,  exactly,  accu- 
rately, precisely;  au  juste  — 
exactly,  precisely,  just. 

justice,  n.  f. ,  justice. 

justifier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  justify;  to 
vindicate,  to  prove,  to  make 
good. 


La,  def.  art.  /.,  the.     (See  le.) 

la,  per.  pro.  /.,  her,  it.     (See  le.) 

la,  adv. ,  there  ;  then  ;  that ;  it ; 
thither. 

labeur,  n.  m.,  labor,  toil,  work. 

laceure,  n.  f. ,  lacing. 

La  Fontaine  (Jean  de),  illustri- 
ous fabulist,  born  at  Chateau- 
Thierry  (1621-1695). 

laisser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  leave,  to 
quit,  to  abandon  ;  to  suffer, 
to  permit ;  to  let,  to  allow ; 
to  let  alone ;  to  omit ;  to 


leave    off ;    to  leave   out ;    to 

give  up. 

lait,  n.  m.y  milk, 
laitage,  n.  m.,  milk-food. 
Lamartine  (Alphonse  de),  author, 

poet,  statesman  (1790-1869). 
lame,  n.  f. ,  plate  ;  blade  ;  sword  ; 

billow,  wave,  surge. 
lamentable,     adj.,     lamentable; 

woful ;  mournful, 
lampe,  n.  f. ,  lamp. 
landau,  n.  m.,  landau, 
lande,  n.  f.,  waste  land,  moor. 


170 


VOCABULARY. 


langue,  n.  f. ,  tongue  ;  language. 

laquelle,  rel.  and  inter,  pro.  (See 
•  lequel.) 

large,  adj. ,  broad,  wide,  large  ; 
great,  grand ;  lax. 

larme,  n,  /. ,  tear ;  drop. 

las,  adj.,  weary,  exhausted. 

lasser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  tire,  to  weary, 
to  fatigue. 

Latin,  n.  m.,  Latin. 

latin,  adj.,  Latin. 

latitude,  n.  f. ,  latitude  ;  extent ; 
climate. 

le,  def.  art.  m. ,  la,  fern. ,  les,  plu. 
m.  f. ,  the. 

le, per.  pro.  m.,  la,/.,  les, plu.  m. 
/.,  him,  her,  it,  them,  so. 

lecon,  n.  f. ,  lesson,  lecture,  read- 
ing. 

lecture,  n.  f. ,  reading  ;  perusal. 

Legouve"  (Ernest),  dramatic  au- 
thor, and  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  (1807). 

le*gume,  n.  m.,  vegetables. 

Lemaitre  (Jules),  dramatic  au- 
thor, novelist,  and  critic.  Cele- 
brated for  his  studies  on  the 
modern  writers.  Born  at  Ven- 
necy,  in  1853. 

lemme,  n.  m.,  lemma. 

Lemnos,  n.  m. ,  Lemno,  an  island 
in  the  JEgean  sea,  belonging  to 
Turkey. 

lent,  adj.,  slow,  sluggish. 

lequel,  m.  rel.  pro.,  laquelle,/. 
lesquels,  plu.  m.,  lesquelles, 
plu.  /.,  who,  whom,  that,  which; 
inter,  pro.,  which  one,  which. 

lequel,  inter,  pro.  m.,  laquelle, /., 
lesquels,  plu.  m.,  lesquelles, 
plu.  /.,  which,  which  one. 


les,  per.  pro.  plu.,  them,  (See  le.) 

les,  def.  art.  plu.,  the.     (See  le.) 

lesquelles,  pro.     (See  lequel.) 

lettre,  n.  f. ,  letter. 

leur,  per.  pro. ,  to  them,  them. 

(le)  leur,  poss.  pro.  m. ,  (la)  leur, 
/.,  (les)  leurs,  plu.,  theirs. 

leur,  poss.  adj.  m.f.,  leurs,  m.  f. 
plu.,  their. 

leurs,  poss.  adj.  m.  /.  plu.  (See 
leur.) 

lever,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  raise,  lift 
up,  heave  ;  to  take  up ;  to  hold 
up ;  to  pull  up  ;  to  dress ;  to 
gather  ;  to  collect ;  to  grow  ;  to 
rise  ;  to  spring  up  ;  [se  — ],  v. 
r.  reg. ,  to  rise ;  to  get  up,  to 
arise;  to  stand  up;  to  start  up. 

liberte",  n.  f. ,  liberty  ;  en  liberte" 
—  free. 

libre,  adj.,  free;  at  liberty;  un- 
guarded, unconfined,  bold, 
broad  ;  rid,  exempt. 

lien,  n.  m.,  band,  rope,  strap; 
plu.,  bonds,  ties,  chains. 

lier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  bind,  to  bind 
down  ;  to  fasten,  to  tie,  to  tie 
down,  up  ;  to  join  ;  to  link,  to 
connect ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
bind,  tie;  to  become  acquainted 
with  ;  to  form  a  connection. 

lierre,  n.  f. ,  ivy. 

lieu,  n.  m. ,  place,  spot,  ground  ; 
cause,  reason,  occasion ;  avoir 
lieu  — -  to  take  place,  to  happen; 
tenir  lieu  —  to  take  the  place 
of,  to  stand  in  the  place  of. 

lieue,  n.  / ,  league. 

ligne,  n.  f. ,  line  ;  path. 

limite,  n.  f.,  limit,  landmark, 
boundary,  bound,  confine. 


VOCABULARY. 


171 


limiter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  limit,  to 
bound  ;  to  circumscribe. 

lion,  n.  m.,  lion. 

lire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  read,  to  recog- 
nize. 

Us,  n.  m.,  lily;  fleur  de  lis  (her.), 
flower  de  luce. 

lit,  n.  m. ,  bed ;  ciel  de  lit  — 
canopy. 

litte*raire,  adj.,  literary. 

litte*rature,  n.  /.,  literature, 
scholarship,  learning. 

livre,  n.  m.,  book. 

livrer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  deliver ;  to 
deliver  up,  over  ;  to  betray;  to 
give  up ;  to  engage  (in  battle)  • 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  deliver 
one's  self  up,  over;  to  sur- 
render; to  devote;  to  dedicate; 
to  confide;  to  expose  one's  self. 

loger,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  lodge,  to  har- 
bor, to  give  a  lodging,  to  house, 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  lodge,  to 
live,  to  put  up. 

logique,  n.  f. ,  logic. 

logis,  n.  m.,  lodging,  dwelling. 

loi,  n.  f. ,  law,  power,  authority; 
de  par  la  loi — by  the  authority 
of  the  law. 

loin,  adv. ,  far,  far  off,  far  back ; 
a  long  way,  at  a  distance,  re- 
mote. 

loin  de,  prep. ,  far  from. 

loin  que,  conj.  loc.,  far  from. 

Loire,  n.  f. ,  Loire. 

Londres,  n.  m.,  London. 

long,  adj.  m.  longue,  /.,  long, 
slow,  tedious. 

longtemps,  adv.,  long,  a  long 
while  ;  a  great  while  ;  de  long- 
temps  —  for  a  long  time. 


lors,  adv. ,  then  ;  des  lors  —  from 
that  time ;  lors  de  —  at  the 
time  of ;  lors  meme  que  —  even 
when. 

lorsque,  conj.,  when. 

Loti  (Pierre),  pseudonyme  of 
Viaud  (Louis  -  Marie  -  Julien) , 
author  and  officer  in  the 
French  marine  service.  Born 
at  Rochefort,  1850. 

louer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  let,  to  hire,  to 
rent,  to  lease,  to  take,  to  rent ; 
louer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  praise,  to 
commend,  to  laud. 

louis,  n.  m. ,  louis,  (an  old  French 
coin  equal  to  nineteen  shillings) ; 
louis  d'or  —  louis  d'or  (of 
gold). 

Louis,  n.  m.,  Louis. 

Louis  XI,  King  of  France.  Louis 
XL  was  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Charles  VII.  (1461- 
1483). 

Louis-Philippe  d'0rle*ans,  son  of 
Philippe-Egalite',  Duke  of  Or- 
leans. He  was  chosen  King  of 
France  after  the  Revolution  of 
July,  1830,  reigned  under  the 
name  of  Louis  Philippe  Iier, 
and  was  dethroned  Feb.  24, 
1848  (1773-1850). 

Louis  XIV,  Louis  le  Grand,  son 
and  successor  of  Louis  XIII. 
(1643-1715). 

Louis  XVI,  Louis  XVI.,  grandson 
and  successor  of  Louis  XV. 
He  was  born  in  1754,  and  died 
on  the  scaffold  Jan.  21,  1793. 

loup,  n.  m.,  wolf. 

lourdement,  adv.,  heavily  ;  clum- 
sily ;  grossly. 


172 


VOCABULARY. 


Louvre,  n.  m. ,  Louvre  (old  palace 

of    the    kings    of    France    in 

Paris). 

Lucile,  n.  f. ,  Lucile. 
lueur,     n.    /.,     glimmer,     light, 

glimpse,  gleam. 
lugubre,  adj.,  mournful,  dismal, 

lugubrious. 
lui,  per.  pro.,  lie,  him,  to  him; 

her,  to  her  ;  it,  to  it. 


luire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  shine,  to  glit- 
ter ;  to  gleam. 

lumiere,  n.  f.,  light;  information; 
intelligence. 

lune,  n.  f. ,  moon. 

lunette,  n.  f.,  spy-glass,  eye-glass; 
plu.,  spectacles. 

lutte,  n./.,  struggle,  contest,  strife. 

lutter,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  wrestle  ;  to 
struggle,  to  contend,  to  strive. 


M. 


Ma,  poss.  adj.  /.,  my.   (See  mon.) 

macaroni,  n.  m.,  macaroni. 

madame,  n.  /.,  Madam,  Mrs., 
lady  (used  only  in  addressing  a). 

mademoiselle,  n.  f. ,  young  lady 
(used  only  in  addressing  a),  miss. 

magister,  n.  m.,  school-master. 

magnolia,  n.  m.,  magnolia. 

mail,  n.  m.,  mail. 

main,  n.  f. ,  hand  ;   handwriting. 

maintenant,  adv.,  now,  at  this 
time,  at  present,  nowadays,  by 
this  time. 

maintenir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  sustain ; 
to  keep  up  ;  to  maintain  ;  to  se- 
cure ;  [se  — ] ,  v.  r.  irr. ,  to  hold 
out ;  to  be  kept  up  ;  to  stand. 

mairie,  n.  /.,  mayoralty;  city-hall. 

mais,  con/.,  but. 

maison,  n.  f.,  house,  habitation  ; 
family;  race. 

maitre,  n.  m.,  master,  owner ;  in- 
structor, teacher;  director;  chief. 

maitriser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  master, 
to  domineer,  to  lord,  to  get 
mastery  over ;  to  overcome,  to 
subdue. 

majeur,  adj.,  major,  greater, 
superior,  of  age. 


mal,  n.  m.,  evil,  ill ;  harm,  pain, 
ache,  sickness,  complaint,  mis- 
chief ;  misfortune ;  mal  a  la 
tete  —  headache  ;  mal  au  pied 
—  sore  foot ;  f aire  du  mal  —  to 
do  harm. 

mal,  adv.,  ill,  wrong,  amiss,  badly; 
uncomfortably  ;  on  bad  terms. 

maladie,  n.  f. ,  disease,  disorder. 

maladif,  adj.  m.,  maladive,  /., 
sickly,  unhealthy. 

malfaire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  do  evil. 

malgre*,  prep.,  in  spite  of,  not- 
withstanding. 

malgr£  que,  conj.  loc.,  notwith- 
standing. 

malheur,  n.  m. ,  misfortune  ;  mis- 
hap ;  unhappiness. 

malheureux,  adj. ,  unfortunate, 
unlucky;  unhappy;  miserable, 
wretched,  poor,  needy. 

malin,  adj.  m.,  maligne,  /., 
malign. 

mander,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  write,  to 
write  word,  to  send  word,  to 
send  for. 

manger,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  eat ;  to 
eat  up;  to  consume,  to  squander 
away,  to  run  through  ;  to  take 


VOCABULARY. 


173 


one's  meals,  to  feed  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg. ,  to  eat  each  other ;  to 
hurt  each  other. 

manger,  n.  m.,  eating,  victuals, 
food. 

mangeure,  n.  f. ,  victuals. 

maniere,  n.  /.,  manner,  way;  sort, 
kind  ;  style,  mannerism ;  a  la 
maniere  de  —  in  the  style  of  ; 
de  maniere  a  —  so  as  to ;  de 
maniere  que,  conj.  loc.,  so  that, 
so  as  to. 

manquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  miss, 
to  lose;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
miss,  to  fail ;  to  be  wanting ; 
to  stand  in  need  of ;  to  be 
near;  to  miscarry. 

Mans,  or  Le  Mans,  n.  m.,  Le 
Mans,  an  important  city  of 
western  France. 

manteau,  n.  m. ,  cloak  ;  mantle  ; 
etre  en  manteau  —  to  wear  a 
cloak. 

maraudage,  n.  m. ,  marauding ; 
plundering. 

marche,  n.  f. ,  walk  ;  walking  ; 
gait;  march;  progress,  advance; 
procession ;  step,  stair ;  con- 
duct ;  move. 

marcher,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  walk,  to 
step  ;  to  tread  ;  to  go,  to  travel, 
to  march ;  to  sail,  to  run,  to 
ply  ;  to  move  on. 

mare*chal,  n.  m.,  marshal,  far- 
rier. 

Marguerite,  n.  f. ,  Margaret. 

mari,  n.  m.,  husband. 

Marie-Antoinette,  n.  f.,  Mary 
Antoinette,  the  unfortunate 
wife  of  Louis  XVI.,  beheaded 
Oct.  16,  1793. 


Marie  Stuart  —  Mary  Stuart, 
daughter  of  James  V. ,  King  of 
Scotland,  and  Mary  of  Lor- 
raine (1542-1587). 

marquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  mark,  to 
stamp,  to  brand ;  to  leave 
marks ;  to  mark  down,  to  note; 
to  mark  out,  to  trace  out ;  to 
tell,  to  mention,  to  write ;  to 
show,  to  testify  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
to  make  its  appearance ;  to  be 
remarked,  to  be  evident ;  to  be 
remarkable,  distinguished ;  to 
be  of  note. 

mars,  n.  m.,  March. 

Marseille,  n.  m.,  Marseilles,  the 
most  important  French  port  on 
the  Mediterranean  sea. 

masse,  n.  f.,  mass,  heap,  lump; 
hoard  ;  stock ;  en  masse  —  in  a 
body. 

Massillon  (Jean-Baptiste),  cele- 
brated orator,  and  Bishop  of 
Clermont  (1663-1742). 

mat,  n.  m.,  mast. 

matelot,  n.  m.,  seaman,  sailor. 

matiere,  n.  f.,  matter,  subject, 
cause,  reason,  motive. 

matin,  n.  m.,  morning;  forenoon; 
de  grand  matin  —  very  early  ; 
un  beau  matin — some  fine  day. 

matinal,  adj.,  pertaining  to  the 
early  morning,  early. 

maudire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  curse,  to 
imprecate. 

Maupassant  (Guy  de),  French 
story  writer  and  novelist,  born 
in  1850,  at  the  chateau  de 
Miromesnil,  department  of  the 
Seine-Infe'rieure,  died  July  6, 
1893. 


1T4 


VOCABULARY. 


mauvais,  adj. ,  bad,  wicked,  evil ; 
ill-natured,  mischievous. 

maux,  n.  m.  plu.    (See  mal.) 

maxime,  n.  f. ,  maxim. 

me,  per.  pro.,  me,  to  me. 

me*chant,  n.  m.,  wicked  person, 
evil  doer. 

me*chant,  adj.,  bad,  wretched, 
worthless  ;  wicked,  dishonest ; 
sorry  ;  ill-natured  ;  mischiev- 
ous ;  wayward,  naughty,  un- 
kind. 

me'connaitre,  v.  a.  irr.,  not  to 
know ;  to  ignore,  to  slight,  not 
to  appreciate ;  to  disown ;  to 
disregard;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr., 
to  forget  one's  self. 

m^content,  adj.,  dissatisfied,  ill- 
satisfied,  discontented. 

me*decin,  n.  m.,  doctor,  physi- 
cian. 

me'dire,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  speak  ill ;  to 
slander ;  to  backbite,  to  tra- 
duce. 

meditation,  n.  f. ,  meditation. 

me*diter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  meditate, 
to  think  over ;  to  plan  ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  contem- 
plate. 

me*faire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  do  evil. 

meilleur,  adj.,  better,  best.  (See 
bon.) 

melange,  n.  m.,  mixture,  min- 
gling; medley. 

Melchior,  n.  m.,  Melchior. 

meler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  mingle,  to 
mix ;  to  blend,  to  jumble ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be  mingled; 
to  tamper;  to  trouble  one's 
self ;  to  intermeddle. 

m&odieux,  adj.,  melodious, 


meme,  adj. ,  same,  self,  very. 

meme,  adv.,  even,  also,  like- 
wise ;  de  meme  que,  conj .  loc. , 
the  same,  so,  like. 

me*moire,  n.  f. ,  memory,  recollec- 
tion, remembrance. 

menacer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  menace, 
to  threaten ;  to  forebode,  to 
portend. 

mener,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  carry,  to  con- 
duct, to  lead,  to  bring ;  to  di- 
rect, to  command,  to  guide ; 
to  take  along  with ;  to  intro- 
duce. 

mentir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  lie,  to  tell  a 
lie,  a  story,  a  falsehood,  an  un- 
truth. 

menu,  adj.,  small,  slender,  spare, 
thin,  inconsiderable. 

menuisier,  n.  m.,  joiner,  car- 
penter. 

me*prendre  (se),  v.  r.  irr.,  to  mis- 
take, to  be  mistaken ;  (fig.),  to 
be  wanting  in  respect,  to  forget 
one's  self. 

me*pris,  n.  m.,  contempt,  scorn, 
contumely. 

mer,  n.  f. ,  sea,  deep  ;  a  la  mer  — 
overboard  (into  the  sea);  en 
pleine  mer  —  on  the  open  sea, 
on  the  high  seas. 

mere,  n.  f. ,  mother. 

me*rite,  n.  m. ,  merit,  worth ; 
desert,  attainments. 

m^riter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  deserve, 
to  merit. 

merveilleux,  adj.,  marvelous. 

mes,  poss.  adj.  plu.,  my.  (See 
won.) 

messeoir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  be  unbe- 
coming, not  to  be  fit. 


VOCABULARY. 


175 


messidor,  n.  m.,  Messidor,  the 
tenth  month  in  the  calendar  of 
the  first  French  republic,  from 
June  19th  to  July  18th. 

mesure,  n.  f.,  measure,  dimen- 
sion; bound;  limit,  extent;  pro- 
priety; sans  mesure  —  without 
measure,  limit ;  immeasurable; 
a  mesure,  adv. ,  in  proportion  ; 
a  mesure  de,  prep.,  according 
to  ;  a  mesure  que,  conj.  loc. ,  in 
proportion  as,  according  as; 
outre  mesure,  adv. ,  excessively. 

mettre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  put,  to  place, 
to  lay,  to  set ;  to  put  on,  to 
wear  ;  to  devote  ;  to  employ  ; 
to  invert ;  to  reduce ;  to  bring 
to  light ;  to  give  birth  to ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  put  one's 
self ;  to  dress  ;  to  begin  ;  to 
stand  ;  se  mettre  a  —  (before 
an  infinitive)  to  begin  to  ;  se 
mettre  peu  en  peine  —  to  care 
but  little. 

meuble,  n.  m.,  household  goods, 
furniture  ;  piece  of  furniture. 

meurtre,  n.  m.,  murder. 

Mexique,  n.  m.,  Mexico. 

Michelet  (Jules),  historian,  and 
author  of  a  number  of  miscel- 
laneous works  (1798-1874). 

(le)  mien,  poss.  pro.  m.,  (la) 
mienne  —  mine  ;  (les)  miens  — 
my  relations  or  family ;  my 
friends,  men,  subjects,  dynasty. 

mieux,  n.  m. ,  better ;  best. 

mieux,  adv. ,  better,  best ;  rather, 
more  comfortable,  etc.  (com- 
parative of  bien,  which  see). 

Mignet  (Francois- Auguste),  his- 
torian (1796-1884). 


milieu,  n.  m.,  middle,  midst, 
heart,  centre ;  expedient,  me- 
dium, mean. 

mille,  n.  f.  and  adj.,  thousand, 
a  thousand. 

mille,  n.  m.,  mile. 

millier,  n.  m.,  thousand,  thou- 
sand-weight. 

million,  n.  m.,  million. 

mineur,  adj.,  minor,  under  age, 
less. 

ministre,  n.  m. ,  minister ;  clergy- 
man ;  servant. 

minutie,  n.  f. ,  trifle. 

Mirabeau  (Eiquetti,  Comte  de),  the 
greatest  orator  of  the  Constit- 
uent Assembly  (1749-1791). 

miroir,  n.  m.,  mirror. 

mission,  n.  f. ,  mission. 

mode,  n.f.,  mode,  fashion,  vogue; 
way  ;  plu. ,  millinery  ;  etre  a 
la  mode  —  to  be  in  fashion ;  a 
la  mode  parisienne  —  in  the 
Parisian  style. 

modele,  n.  m.,  model,  copy,  pat- 
tern. 

modeler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  moderate, 
to  abate ;  to  restrain,  to  re- 
strict ;  to  lessen,  to  reduce,  to 
curb. 

moelleux,  adj.,  marrowy  ;  pithy  ; 
soft,  mellow. 

moeurs,  n.  f.  plu. ,  manners,  mor- 
als, habits,  inclinations,  ways ; 
customs. 

moi,  per.  pro.,  I,  me,  to  me. 

moindre,  adj.,  less. 

moins,  adv.,  less;  under;  au 
moins  —  at  least;  at  all  events; 
du  moins  —  at  least ;  a  moins 
—  for  less ;  a  moins  de,  prep., 


176 


VOCABULARY. 


unless,  without ;  a  moins  que, 
conj.  loc.,  unless. 

meis,  n.  m.,  month. 

mol,  adj,  in.     (See  mou.) 

Moliere  (Jean-Baptiste  Poqueliri), 
the  greatest  writer  of  French 
comedy  (1622-1673). 

molle,  adj.  f.     (See  mou.) 

Mollevaut  (Charles-Louis),  poet, 
professor  of  literature  and  rhet- 
oric, member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  (1777-1844). 

moment,  n.  m. ,  moment ;  time ; 
interval. 

mon,  poss.  adj.  m.,  ma,  /.,  mes, 
plu.  m.  /.,  my. 

monarchic,  n.  f. ,  monarchy. 

monde,  n.  m. ,  world,  universe  ; 
mankind,  man  ;  people,  com- 
pany ;  tout  le  monde  —  every- 
body, everyone. 

monnaie,  n.  f. ,  coin,  money ; 
change  ;  mint ;  coinage  ;  cur- 
rency. 

monseigneur,  n.  m. ,  my  lord. 

monsieur,  n.  m.,  Mr.,  Sir,  gentle- 
man. 

montagne,  n.  /,  mountain;  range, 
ridge  of  mountains. 

Montaigne  (Michel  de),  French 
moralist  and  author  of  Essays 
(1533-1592). 

Montalembert  (Charles,  Comte  de), 
orator,  publicist,  and  author 
(1810-1870). 

monter,  v.  n,  reg. ,  to  ascend ;  to 
mount ;  to  go  or  come  up ;  to 
rise ;  to  set  up ;  to  furnish ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  amount; 
to  provide  one's  self  ;  to  get 
excited,  to  rise,  to  reach. 


Montesquieu  (Charles  de  Secon- 
dat,  baron  de),  French  publicist 
and  author  (1689-1755). 

montrer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  show,  to 
exhibit,  to  point  out ;  to  teach; 
to  set  forth  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  show  one's  self  ;  to  appear ; 
to  look. 

monument,  n.  m. ,  monument ; 
edifice ;  tomb. 

moral,  adj.,  moral. 

mort,  n.  /.,  death,  decease. 

mort,  n.  m. ,  morte,  /. ,  dead  per- 
son, deceased ;  corpse. 

mot,  n.  m. ,  word ;  mot  pour  mot, 
also  mot  a  mot  —  word  for 
word. 

mou,  mol,  adj.  m.,  molle,  /.  (mol 
is  used  only  before  a  noun  be- 
ginning with  a  vowel  or  an  h 
mute),  soft,  mellow  ;  tame. 

mouche,  n.  f. ,  fly. 

moudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  grind,  to 
mill. 

moule,  n.  m.,  matrix,  mould,  cast. 

mourir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  die,  to 
perish,  to  drop  off,  to  expire  ; 
to  go  out ;  to  die  out ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  irr.,  to  be  dying;  to  be 
dying  out. 

mouton,  n.  m.,  sheep. 

mouvement,  n.  m.,  movement, 
motion. 

mouvoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  move,  to 
stir ;  to  set  in  motion ;  to  in- 
cite ;  to  excite  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
irr. ,  to  move. 

moyen,  n.  m. ,  means,  way,  man- 
ner, medium,  power. 

muet,  adj.,  mute. 

mur,  n.  m.,  wall. 


VOCABULARY. 


177 


mur,  adj.,  ripe,  mature. 

murir,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  ripen,  to 
grow  ripe,  to  mature. 

murmurer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  mur- 
mur, to  grumble,  to  mutter ; 


to  whisper  ;  to  gurgle  ;  to  prat- 
tle, to  babble. 

musicien,  n.  m.,  musician. 

musique,  n.  f. ,  music. 

mystere,  n.  7/1.,  mystery. 


N. 


Naguere,  adv.,  lately,  but  lately, 
but  now. 

naif,  adj.  m.,  naive,  /.,  naive, 
native,  artless,  ingenuous ; 
plain,  unaffected,  natural ; 
candid ;  simple. 

naissant, adj. ,  newly-born;  dawn- 
ing ;  budding,  rising ;  infant ; 
beginning,  nascent. 

naitre,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  be  born  ;  to 
grow ;  to  rise,  to  arise,  to 
dawn  ;  to  spring  up. 

Napol6onler  (Bonaparte),  1769- 
1821. 

Napolitain,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  Nea- 
politan ;  a  la  Napolitaine,  in 
the  Neapolitan  fashion,  or 
style. 

nasal,  adj.,  nasal. 

natal,  adj.,  natal,  native. 

nation,  n.  f. ,  nation. 

national,  adj.,  national. 

nature,  n.  f. ,  nature. 

naturel,  adj.,  natural,  native,  in- 
born, innate,  inherent,  genial ; 
plain,  home-bred. 

navire,  n.  m.,  vessel,  ship. 

ne,  adv. ,  no,  not,  (ne  is  contracted 
into  n'  before  a  vowel  or  a 
silent  h). 

n£ant,  n.  m.,  nothing,  naught, 
nothingness  ;  mettre  au  ne"ant 
—  to  set  at  naught. 

ne"buleuse,  n.  f.,  nebula. 


ne*cessaire,  adj.,  necessary,  re- 
quisite, needful. 

ne"cessiter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  compel, 
to  force  ;  to  necessitate. 

negativement,  adv.,  negatively. 

ne*gliger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  neglect,  to 
omit,  to  slight,  to  pass  over,  to 
disregard,  to  pass  by. 

ne"grier,  n.  m.,  slave-ship. 

nenni,  adv. ,  no  indeed,  not  at  all. 

nerf ,  n.  m. ,  nerve  ;  fortitude. 

neuf,  adj.  m.,  neuve,  /.,  new, 
raw,  green,  young. 

neuf,  adj.,  nine. 

neuve,  adj.  f.     (See  neuf.) 

neveu,  n.  m.,  nephew. 

neuvieme,  adj.,  ninth. 

nez,  n.  m.,  nose. 

ni,  con/.,  neither;  nor;  or;  ne 
.  .  .  ni,  ni  .  .  .  ni  —  neither ; 
nor ;  or. 

niche,  n.  f. ,  niche. 

nier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  deny,  to  gainsay. 

noble,  n.  m.,  noble,  nobleman. 

noble,  adj.,  noble,  great,  elevated. 

noblesse,  n.  f. ,  nobility ;  noble- 
ness, loftiness. 

nocturne,  adj. ,  nocturnal,  nightly. 

Nodier  (Charles),  grammarian, 
poet,  and  philologist  (1783- 
1844). 

noir,  adj. ,  black,  dark,  dirty ; 
gloomy ;  foul ;  en  noir  —  on 
the  dark  side. 


178 


VOCABULARY. 


noircir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  blacken,  to 
.  grow  black;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 

black,  to  make  black;  to  stain; 

to  sully,  to  traduce, 
nom,  n.  m.,  name,  (gram.),  noun, 
nombre,  n.  m.,  number;  quantity. 
nombreux,  adj.,  numerous. 
non,  adv.,  no,  not;    que  non  — 

not ;  no  ;   oh !  que  non  —  dear 

me,  no  !  no  indeed  ! 
non-compris   (not    included,   see 

page  88). 

nonobstant,  prep. ,  notwithstand- 
ing ;  in  spite  of. 

nonobstant  que,  conj.   loc.,  not- 
withstanding ;  although. 
non  pas  que,   conj.   loc.,  not  so 

that, 
non  plus  que,  conj.  loc. ,  not  more 

than, 
non  que,  conj.  loc.,  not  that ;  non 

pas  que,  conj.  loc.,  not  at  all  that. 
nord,  n.  m.,  north. 
Normandie,  n.  f. ,  Normandy, 
notre,  poss.  adj.  m.  /.,  nos,  plu. 

m.  f. ,  our. 
notre  (le),  poss.  pro.  m.,  la  notre, 

/.,  our  ;    les  notres,  plu.  m.  /., 

ours. 
Notre-Dame,  n.  /.,  (Notre-Dame 

de  Paris),  one  of  the  magnifi- 


cent cathedrals  of  the  world. 
The  foundation  was  laid  in 
1163.  Victor  Hugo  made  it 
the  heroine  of  his  famous 
romance,  "Notre-Dame  de 
Paris." 

nourrir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  nourish, 
to  nurture  ;  to  feed,  to  keep, 
to  maintain ;  to  foster ;  to 
cherish. 

nous,  per.  pro.,  we,  us,  each 
other ;  to  us. 

nouveau,  nouvel,  adj.  m.,  nou- 
velle,  /.  (nouvel  is  used  only 
before  a  noun  beginning  with 
a  vowel  or  an  h  mute),  new, 
young,  recent,  different. 

noyer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  drown ; 
to  put  under  water ;  to 
deluge. 

nu,  adj.,  naked,  bare,  uncovered; 
plain,  open,  without  disguise, 
destitute. 

nuage,  n.  m.,  cloud;  mist;  gloom, 
sadness,  dejection. 

nuire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  hurt,  to  pre- 
judice, to  harm,  to  annoy,  to 
wrong. 

nuit,  n.  f. ,  night. 

nul,  adj.  m.,  nulle,  /.,  no,  not 
any ;  void,  null. 


O. 


Obe*ir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  obey,  to  com- 
ply with,  to  bend,  to  yield. 

objet,  n.  m.,  object,  subject,  mat- 
ter, business,  aim,  end,  view, 
drift,  purport ;  article. 

obliger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  oblige,  to 
bind;  to  compel,  to  gratify;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg. ,  to  oblige,  to  favor. 


obscur,  adj.,  obscure,  dark. 

observateur,  n.  m. ,  -trice,  /. ,  ob- 
server ;  student. 

observer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  observe,  to 
mind,  to  notice;  to  keep  watch; 
to  fulfil,  to  perform  ;  [s'— ], 
to  be  circumspect,  to  look  about 
one's  self. 


VOCABULARY. 


179 


obstiner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  make 
obstinate;  [s' — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  be  obstinate ;  to  insist 
on. 

obtenir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  obtain,  to 
procure,  to  get. 

occasion,  n.  /.,  opportunity,  oc- 
casion ;  cause,  reason. 

Occident,  n.  m.,  Occident,  West. 

occuper,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  occupy,  to 
employ,  to  busy  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg.,  (jur.),  to  appear,  to  be 
concerned  as  the  attorney ; 
[s' — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be  busy, 
occupied,  to  attend  to. 

oce*an,  n.  m.,  ocean. 

ceil,  n.  m.,  yeux,  plu.,  eye  ;  hole 
(in  bread,  cheese)-,  bubble  (in 
soup). 

ceuvre,  n.  f.,  work,  piece  of  work; 
deed,  act. 

offenser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  offend,  to 
give  offence ;  to  hurt ;  to  be  of- 
fensive to,  to  offend  against ; 
[s>— ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be  offended, 
to  take  exception. 

offrir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  offer,  to  pro- 
pose, to  tender;  to  present; 
to  afford  ;  to  bid. 

oie,  n.  f. ,  goose  ;  goose,  simple- 
ton, ninny ;  ma  mere  Pole  — 
Mother-Goose. 

oindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  anoint. 

oiseau,  n.  m.,  bird. 

oisivete*,  n.  f. ,  idleness. 

ombrage*,  adj.,  shaded. 

ombrager,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  shade. 

ombre,  n.  f. ,  shadow ;  shade ; 
spirit;  background. 

omettre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  omit,  to 
leave  out,  to  pass  over. 


on,  indef.  pro.,  one;  they;  people; 
men. 

oncle,  n.  m.,  uncle. 

onze,  adj.,  eleven. 

onzieme,  adj.,  eleventh. 

opiniatre,  adj.,  stubborn,  obsti- 
nate, headstrong,  self-willed. 

opiniatrer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  contra- 
dict, to  maintain  obstinately. 

opinion,  n.  f.,  opinion. 

oppose*,  adj.,  opposite,  contrary, 
facing ;  disinclined. 

opposer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  oppose  ;  to 
put  in  opposition ;  to  place 
against ;  to  plead,  to  urge ; 
[s>— ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be  opposed, 
to  resist,  to  stem,  to  object,  to 
combat. 

oppresser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  oppress, 
to  depress,  to  deject. 

opprime*,  part. ,  oppressed. 

opprimer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  oppress. 

or,  n.  m.,  gold. 

orage,  n.  m.,  storm,  tempest. 

orateur,  n.  m.,  orator. 

ordonner,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  ordain, 
to  order;  to  confer  holy  orders; 
to  regulate ;  to  direct,  com- 
mand ;  to  decree. 

ordre,  n.  m. ,  order,  mandate ; 
class,  tribe. 

oreille,  n.  f.,  ear. 

orgueil,  n.  m.,  pride,  arrogance. 

origine,  n.  /.,  origin,  source. 

ornement,  n.  m.,  ornament. 

orphelin,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  or- 
phan. 

osciller,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  oscillate, 
to  fluctuate,  to  hesitate. 

oser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dare. 

ou,  prep. ,  or,  either,  else. 


180 


VOCABULARY. 


oil,    adv.,    where,     whither,     at 

which,  in  or  to  which  ;   when, 

that. 
oil,  rel.  pro. ,  in  which,  to  which, 

at  which,  where, 
oublier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  forget,  to  be 

unmindful  of  ;  [s> — ],  v.  r.  reg., 

to  forget  one's  self,  to  neglect 

one's  affairs. 
oui,  adv.,  yes,  certainly;  que  oui — 

yes,  to  be  sure  ;  oh !  que  oui  — 

yes  indeed,  positively. 


ouir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  hear. 

outre,  adv.,  further,  beyond. 

outre,  prep.,  beyond  ;  besides,  in 
addition  to,  above. 

outremer,  n.  in.,  ultramarine  blue. 

outre  que,  conj.  loc. ,  besides. 

ouvrage,  n.  m.,  work,  piece  of 
work ;  performance ;  work- 
manship. 

ouvrier,  n.  m.,  workman. 

ouvrir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  open ;  to  set 
upon ;  to  sharpen  (the  appetite). 


Pacification,  n.  f.,  pacification, 
peacemaking. 

pacifier,  v.  'a.  reg.,  to  pacify,  to 
appease. 

page,  n.  /.,  page  (of  a  book,  etc.). 

pain,  n.  m. ,  bread,  provision ; 
petit  pain  —  roll. 

paisible,  adj.,  peaceable,  peace- 
ful, quiet. 

paitre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  graze,  to  feed; 
to  pasture;  (fig.)  [envoyer — ], 
to  send  about  one's  business ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be  fed; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  feed,  to 
nourish  one's  self. 

paix,  n.  f.,  peace,  quiet. 

paix !  int. ,  peace  !  be  quiet ! 

palais,  n.  m.,  palace. 

Palais-Bourbon,  also  called  Pa- 
lais du  Corps  Le*gislatif  —  con- 
structed in  1722  ;  it  has  been 
for  a  long  time  occupied  by  the 
Second  Chamber  of  the  French 
Parliament. 

palpiter,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  palpitate, 
to  throb  ;  to  pant;  to  flutter. 

papier,  n.  m.,  paper. 


papillon,  n.  m.,  butterfly. 

par,  prep.,  by,  through,  out  of, 
about,  into,  from,  for,  for  the 
sake  of,  at,  with  ;  during. 

paraitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  appear,  to 
be  visible,  to  be  seen  ;  to  make 
a  show,  to  make  some  figure  ; 
to  come  out,  to  be  published ; 
to  seem,  to  look. 

paratonnerre,  n.  m.,  lightning- 
rod. 

pare,  n.  m.,  park. 

parce  que,  conj.  loc.,  because. 

parcourir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  travel 
over,  to  go  over,  to  run  over ; 
to  survey ;  to  look  over ;  to 
peruse ;  to  turn  over  the  leaves 
of  a  book,  reading  here  and 
there. 

pardonner,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  pardon, 
to  forgive  ;  to  spare,  to  excuse. 

pareil,  adj.,  equal,  alike. 

parent,  n.  m. ,  relation,  relative  ; 
kin ;  plu. ,  parents,  relatives, 
kindred. 

paresse,  n.  /.,  laziness,  idleness, 
indolence. 


VOCABULARY. 


181 


parfaire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  perfect,  to 
complete,  to  make  up. 

parf ait,  adj. ,  perfect,  finished  ; 
accomplished,  complete. 

parfois,  adv.,  sometimes,  occa- 
sionally, now  and  then. 

parier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  bet,  to  lay  a 
wager. 

Paris,  n.  m.,  Paris. 

Parisien,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  Parisian, 

parier,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  speak,  to 
talk;  to  converse,  to  discourse; 
[ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  speak  (a 
language)  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  say  to  one's  self,  to  speak  to 
each  other,  to  be  spoken  (lan- 
guages). 

parmi,  prep.,  among,  amongst, 
amid,  amidst. 

parole,  n.  /.,  word,  speech,  lan- 
guage; saying,  sentiment;  utter- 
ance, voice;  eloquence;  promise. 

part,  n.  /.,  share,  part,  portion; 
concern,  interest ;  part,  side  ; 
quelque  part  —  somewhere  ; 
nulle  part  —  nowhere. 

partager,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  share ; 
to  give  a  share ;  to  divide,  to 
portion,  to  distribute  ;  to  par- 
take of,  to  participate  in,  to 
take  part  in,  to  receive  a  share. 

partial,  adj.,  partial. 

particulier,  adj. ,  particular,  pecu- 
liar, private  ;  singular. 

partie,  n.  /.,  part,  match;  project; 
line  of  business  ;  party. 

partir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  depart,  to  set 
out,  to  start,  to  go  away  ;  to 
proceed  ;  to  flow  ;  to  come  ;  to 
go  off ;  to  begin  ;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr., 
to  divide. 


partout,  adv.,  everywhere,  any- 
where. 

parvenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  attain,  to 
arrive,  to  reach,  to  succeed. 

pas,  n.  m.,  step,  pace;  footstep, 
•stride,  walk,  gait ;  progress ; 
a  petits  pas  —  slowly;  a  grands 
pas  —  with  long  strides. 

pas,  adv. ,  no  ;  not,  not  any  ;  ne 
.  .  .  pas  — not ;  pas  du  tout  — 
not  at  all ;  presque  pas  — 
scarcely  any. 

passager,  n.  m.,  passenger,  trav- 
eller. 

passe,  n.  /.,  pass,  situation,  state; 
channel ;  track. 

passe*,  n.  m.,  time  past,  things 
past ;  past ;  (gram.),  past  tense. 

passe*,  adj.,  past,  gone. 

passe*,  prep. ,  after ;  except.  (See 
also  page  88.) 

passer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  pass,  to  cross 
over  ;  to  slip,  to  exceed,  to  sur- 
pass, to  put  on ;  to  omit,  to 
leave  out,  to  pardon;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  reg.,  to  pass,  to  pass  on, 
along,  away ;  to  die,  to  ex- 
pire ;  to  be  considered ;  to  fade 
(flowers)-,  [se — ],  v.  r.reg.,  to 
pass,  to  pass  away  ;  to  fade  ;  to 
decay,  to  fall  off ;  to  happen ; 
to  be  satisfied ;  to  forbear,  to 
do  without ;  passez  votre  che- 
min — go  your  way. 

passion,  n.  f. ,  passion ;  love. 

passionne*,  adj.,  passionate,  im- 
passioned, passionately  fond. 

Pater,  n.  m.,  (Notre-Pere)  Lord's 
Prayer. 

pathe*tique,  adj.,  pathetic,  affect- 
ing, moving,  touching. 


182 


VOCABULARY. 


patience,  n.  f. ,  patience. 

patient,  adj.,  patient. 

patrie,  n.  /.,  fatherland,  country, 
native  land. 

pauvre,  adj.,  poor,  miserable, 
mean. 

payer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  pay,  to  pay 
for,  off ;  to  recompense,  to  re- 
ward;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be 
satisfied,  to  be  bought. 

pays,  n.  m.,  country;  birthplace; 
native  place. 

paysage,  n.  m. ,  landscape. 

paysan,  n.  in.,  peasant,  country- 
man. 

peindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  paint,  to 
portray,  to  describe,  to  depict ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  represent 
to  one's  self ;  to  appear,  to 
gleam. 

peine,  n.  f. ,  punishment,  penalty, 
pain,  affliction,  misery;  trouble, 
anxiety,  labor;  pains,  reluc- 
tance; a  peine — hardly,  scarce, 
scarcely;  avoir  peine  a — hard- 
ly to,  etc. ;  j'ai  peine  a  le 
croire  —  I  can  hardly  believe  it. 

peintre,  n.  m.,  painter,  artist. 

peinture,  n.  f. ,  painting ;  por- 
traiture, picture. 

Pelletan  (Pierre-  Clement  Eugene) , 
author  and  senator  (1813- 
1884). 

penchant,  n.  m.,  declivity;  slope; 
decline ;  brink ;  inclination, 
propensity;  taste. 

pencher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  incline,  to 
lean,  to  bend,  .to  stoop ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg.,  to  lean,  to  incline,  to 
be  disposed. 

pendant,  prep. ,  during. 


pendant  que,  conj.  loc.,  whilst, 
while. 

pendre,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  hang,  to 
hang  up,  to  be  suspended. 

pe*ne*trer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  pene- 
trate ;  to  pervade  ;  to  get  in,  to 
enter  ;  to  pierce  ;  to  impress  ; 
to  imbue. 

pensee,  n.  f. ,  thought,  idea,  con- 
ception ;  mind,  belief,  opinion ; 
design. 

penser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  think,  to 
think  of;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
think,  to  reflect ;  to  meditate ; 
to  have  an  opinion ;  to  hope  ; 
to  be  near  ;  to  take  heed  ;  pen- 
ser de  —  to  have  an  opinion 
of. 

percevoir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  receive, 
to  gather,  to  collect  (taxes). 

perdre,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  lose,  to  be 
deprived  of ;  to  waste,  to  ruin ; 
to  corrupt;  to  spoil;  to  destroy; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  lose,  to  be 
out  of  pocket;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  lose  one's  self,  to 
destroy  one's  self ;  to  go  to 
ruin  ;  to  have  a  rambling  way 
of  arguing. 

perdreau,  n.  m. ,  young  partridge. 

pere,  n.  m.,  father. 

perfection,  n.  f.,  perfection. 

perfectionner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  per- 
fect ;  to  improve,  to  improve 
on. 

pe*ril,  n.  m.,  peril. 

pe*rilleux,  adj.,  perilous,  danger- 
ous, hazardous. 

pe*riode,  n.  f. ,  period  (revolution) ; 
period,  sentence  (gram.);  period 
(chron.);  phrase  (mus.). 


VOCABULARY. 


183 


pe*riode,  n.  m.,  pitch,  summit, 
acme,  period ;  un  long  pe*riode 
de  temps  —  a  long  period  of 
time. 

pe*rir,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  perish,  to  die, 
to  be  lost,  to  be  destroyed,  to 
sink,  to  fall  off ;  to  come  to  an 
end. 

perle,  n.  f. ,  pearl ;  bead. 

permettre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  permit, 
to  allow,  to  suffer,  to  give  leave, 
to  let. 

permission,  n.  /.,  permission. 

Persan,  n.  m.  and  adj. ,  Persian. 

pers^cuter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  per- 
secute, to  trouble,  to  impor- 
tune. 

perse*ve*rer,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  persevere, 
to  be  steadfast. 

persister,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  persist. 

personne,  n.  /.,  person,  man, 
woman,  child,  (gram.),  person. 

personne,  pro.  m.,  nobody,  no 
man,  nqne,  no  one ;  anybody, 
anyone ;  ne  .  .  .  personne  — 
nobody  ;  no  one. 

personnel,  adj. ,  personal ;  selfish. 

persuader,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  per- 
suade, to  convince,  to  satisfy. 

perte,  n.  /. ,  loss,  losings ;  ruin, 
waste. 

Perugin,  n.  m. ,  Perugino  ;  Italian 
painter  (1446-1524). 

peser,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  weigh ;  to 
ponder,  to  consider  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
reg. ,  to  weigh,  to  be  of  weight, 
to  be  heavy  ;  to  bear  upon,  to 
lean  ;  to  dwell  upon. 

petit,  n.  m.,  petite,/.,  little  one; 
little  boy.;  little  girl;  little 
thing ;  darling  ;  young. 


petit,   adj.,  little,   small,   mean, 

simple. 

peu,  adv.,  little,  few. 
peuple,   n.    m. ,    people,   nation ; 

multitude. 

peuple*,  adj.,  peopled. 
peur,  n.  f.,  timidity;  fear,  fright ; 

dread  ;  cowardice  ;   avoir  peur 

—  to  be  afraid ;   de  peur  que, 
conj.  loc. ,  for  fear  that ;  lest. 

peut-etre,  adv.,  perhaps;  maybe. 

peut-etre  que,  conj.  loc,  perhaps 
that ;  perchance  that. 

physionomie,  n.  /.,  physiognomy. 

physique,  adj.,  physical. 

pied,  n.  m. ,  foot ;  track ;  leg 
(of  furniture)  ;  a  pied  —  on 
foot. 

pierre,  n.  f. ,  stone. 

Pierre,  n.  m.,  Peter. 

pie*te*,  n.  f.,  piety. 

pieusement,  adv.,  piously,  de- 
voutly. 

pillage,  n.  m.,  pillage. 

pilote,  n.  m.,  pilot ;  pilote  cotier 

—  coasting  pilot. 

pin,  n.  m.,  pine-tree,  pine,  Scotch 

fir. 
piquer,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  prick ;  to 

goad ;    to    sting ;    to   bite ;    to 

quilt ;  to  stitch  ;   to  excite  ;  to 

stimulate,  to  gall ;  to  affront. 
pire,  adj.,  worse. 
pis,  adv.  and  n.  m.,  worse,  worst. 
pitte*,   n.    /.,    pity,    compassion; 

par  pitie*  —  for  pity's  sake. 
pittoresque,     adj.,     picturesque, 

graphic. 
place,  n.  /.,  place,  room,  seat; 

post;  employment,  office,  town; 

square. 


184 


VOCABULARY. 


placer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  place,  to  put. 
to  seat,  to  dispose,  to  set,  to 
invest;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
place  one's  self:  to  obtain  a 
situation. 

plafond,  n.  in.,  ceiling. 

plaidoyer,  n.  m.,  defence,  speech 
at  the  bar. 

plaindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  pity,  to 
compassionate,  to  commiserate; 
to  grudge;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr., 
to  complain,  to  groan,  to  moan. 

plaine,  n.  f. ,  plain. 

plaire,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  please,  to  de- 
light, to  be  agreeable;  [ — ], 
imp.,  to  wish,  to  be  inclined  to; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  delight  in, 
to  take  pleasure  in ;  to  love,  to 
like ;  to  be  pleased  with ;  a 
Dieu  ne  plaise  —  God  forbid. 

plaisir,  n.  in.,  pleasure,  joy,  de- 
light ;  diversion,  sport,  enter- 
tainment, will,  consent,  appro- 
bation ;  favors,  courtesy,  kind- 
ness. 

plancher,  n.  m.,  floor. 

plat,  adj.,  flat;  dull,  insipid, 
spiritless,  straight  (hair). 

plein,  adj.,  full,  filled;  en  plein 
air  —  in  the  open  air. 

pleurer,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  cry,  to 
weep,  to  shed  tears,  to  bewail, 
to  mourn;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
weep,  to  bewail ;  to  lament ; 
to  grudge. 

pleurs,  n.  m.  plu.,  tears  ;  weep- 
ing. 

pleuvoir,  v.  imper.  irr. ,  to  rain ; 
to  pour  in  or  down ;  to  fall. 

plier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  fold ;  to 
bend  ;  to  stoop  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 


reg. ,  to  bend,  to  yield  ;  to  give 
way. 

plumage,  n.  m.,  plumage. 

plume,  n.  f. ,  feather  ;  quill,  pen. 

plupart  (la),  n.  /.,  most,  most 
part,  the  greatest  part;  gen- 
erality, most  people. 

plus,  adv. ,  more,  over,  most ; 
also,  moreover  ;  besides  ;  plus ; 
ne  .  .  .  plus  —  no  more,  no 
longer. 

plusieurs,  pro.  and  adj.  m.  f.  plu., 
several,  many. 

plutot,  adv.,  rather,  sooner,  bet- 
ter; plutot  que —  rather  than. 

poete,  n.  m.  f. ,  poet ;  poetess. 

poe*tique,  n.  f.  and  adj.,  poetics; 
poetical. 

poindre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  dawn,  to 
peep,  to  break ;  to  appear ; 
[ — ],  v.  a.  irr.,  to  string  (I.  u.). 

point,  n.  in.,  point,  dot,  period, 
speck. 

point,  adv.,  no,  not;  not  at  all; 
none ;  ne  .  .  .  point  —  not, 
not  at  all ;  point  du  tout  — 
(more  emphatic  than  pas  du 
tout,  which  see). 

poire,  n.  f. ,  pear. 

pois,  n.  m.,  pea. 

poitrine,  n.  f. ,  chest,  breast. 

pomme,  n.  f. ,  apple. 

pomme  de  terre,  n.  /.,  potato. 

Ponsard  (Francis),  dramatic  poet, 
author  of  Lucrece,  VHonneur  et 
V Argent,  etc.  (1814-1868). 

pont,  n.  m.,  bridge. 

Pont-Neuf,  New  Bridge,  the  best 
known  of  the  bridges  in  Paris. 
It  was  finished  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  IV.  (about  1600). 


VOCABULARY. 


185 


Popelin  (Claudius-Marcel),  artist 
and  author.  Born  at  Paris  in 
1825. 

populaire,  adj.,  popular,  vulgar. 

popularity  n.  /.,  popularity. 

portail,  n.  m.,  portal,  door. 

porte,  n.  /.,  door  ;  gate. 

porte*e,  n.  f.,  reach  (of  hand,  or 
mind),  capacity,  compass;  im- 
port ;  shot ;  range. 

porte-plume,  n.  m.,  pen-holder. 

porter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  -carry ,  to  bear; 
to  bring ;  to  support,  to  wear  ; 
to  contain  ;  to  produce  ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg.,  to  bear,  to  rest,  to 
lie  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be,  to 
do  (health) ;  to  incline  ;  to  pro- 
ceed ;  to  move ;  to  be  dis- 
posed. 

portrait,  n.  m.,  portrait,  picture, 
likeness. 

pose*  que,  conj.  loc.,  admitting 
that. 

posse*der,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  possess,  to 
be  master  of  ;  to  enjoy;  to  own, 
to  hold  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
command  one's  self,  to  master 
one's  temper,  passions. 

possible,  adj. ,  possible ;  il  est 
possible,  v.  imper. ,  it  is  possible. 

poste,  n.  f. ,  post,  post-house ; 
post-stage  ;  post-office  ;  mail. 

potager,  n.  m.,  kitchen-garden. 

pou,  n.  m.,  louse. 

poule,  n.  f. ,  chicken,  hen. 

pour,  prep. ,  for  ;  on  account  of  ; 
in  order  to  ;  to. 

pour  peu  que,  conj.  loc. ,  however 
little  that. 

pour  que?  conj,  locfj  in  order 
that, 


pouiquoi,  adv.,  why,  wherefore. 

pourquoi,  conj.,  why,  for  what, 
upon  what  account. 

pourquoi,  n.  m.,  the  reason  why, 
the  why  and  the  wherefore. 

poursuivre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  pursue, 
to  hunt,  to  chase  ;  to  prosecute, 
to  annoy ;  to  endeavor  to  ob- 
tain, to  seek  for;  (jur.),  to  sue, 
to  prosecute. 

pourtant,  adv.,  however,  howso- 
ever, yet,  still,  for  all  that, 
though,  nevertheless,  notwith- 
standing. 

pourvoir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  provide,  to 
supply  ;  to  look  to,  to  see  to  ; 
to  nominate,  to  appoint ;  [ — ], 
v.  a.  irr. ,  to  invest  with,  to  put 
in  possession  of  ;  to  endow;  to 
stock  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  sue, 
to  make  application  for ;  to 
provide  one's  self. 

pourvu  que,  conj.  loc.,  provided 
that. 

pousser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  push,  to 
thrust;  to  drive;  to  shoot  forth, 
to  extend ;  to  utter ;  to  help 
on;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  push 
forward,  out ;  to  sprout ;  to 
shoot  forth.  * 

pouvoir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  be  able,  to 
be  possible,  can,  may;  to  be 
allowed. 

prairie,  n.  f.,  prairie,  savannah, 
meadow. 

pratique,  adj.,  practical,  experi- 
enced. 

pr6,  n.  m. ,  meadow,  small  mead  ; 
paddock. 

pre*ce*dent,  n.  m. ,  something  done 
pr  sa$  previously  j  precedent, 


186 


VOCABULARY. 


pre"ce*dent,  adj.,  precedent,  pre- 
ceding, foregoing. 

pre*cieux,  adj.,  precious,  costly, 
valuable  ;  affected,  finical,  pre- 
cise. 

pre*cipiter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  precipi- 
tate, to  throw,  to  hurl ;  to  hur- 
ry; [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  pre- 
cipitate one's  self ;  to  rush,  to 
dash ;  to  spring  forth,  to  dart, 
to  run. 

precis,  adj.,  precise,  distinct,  ex- 
act, strict,  formal,  just. 

pre'cise'ment,  adv.,  precisely,  just. 

precision,  n.  f. ,  precision,  precise- 
ness. 

pre*dire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  predict,  to 
foretell,  to  forebode. 

pre"f e*rer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  prefer  ;  to 
choose. 

pre*liminaire,  n.  m.  and  adj. ,  pre- 
liminary. 

premier,  adj.  m.,  premiere,  /., 
first;  foremost;  chief,  principal; 
former,  ancient,  old,  primitive. 

prendre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  take  up  ;  to 
seize,  to  lay  hold  of;  to  assume; 
to  contract;  to  catch;  to  match; 
to  attack;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to 
take  root ;  to  curdle  ;  to  con- 
geal, to  freeze  ;  to  begin  ;  to 
succeed  ;  to  burn  up  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  irr.,  to  be  caught;  to  catch, 
to  cling ;  to  freeze  ;  to  go  to 
work. 

pre"parer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  prepare,  to 
fit,  to  provide  ;  to  make  ready. 

pres,  prep. ,  by,  near,  nigh,  close 
to,  hard  by,  nearly;  pres  de  — 
near  to  ;  a  peu  pres,  adv.  loc. , 
nearly,  about, 


prescrire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  prescribe, 
to  order,  to  direct,  to  enjoin. 

presence,  n.  f. ,  presence. 

present,  adj.,  present ;  a  present 
—  at  present,  now. 

presenter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  present, 
to  offer,  to  hold  out,  to  intro- 
duce. 

preserver,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  preserve, 
to  keep,  to  defend. 

president,  n.  m.,  president. 

presque,  adv.,  almost,  nearly,  all 
but. 

PressensS  (Emilie  Dehaut,  Ma- 
dame de),  author.  Born  at 
Yverdun,  Switzerland,  in  1827. 

pressentir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  have  a 
presentiment  of ;  to  ascertain 
the  intentions  of  ;  to  sound. 

presser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  press,  to 
squeeze  ;  to  hurry,  to  hasten  ; 
to  importune ;  to  be  hard 
upon;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  be 
urgent ;  to  be  acute  (of  pain). 

pre*sumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  presume, 
to  conjecture. 

pret,  adj.,  ready,  in  readiness, 
prepared,  willing  ;  tenir  pret  — 
to  keep  ready. 

pre*tendre,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  affirm,  to 
assert,  to  maintain ;  [ — ] ,  v.  n. 
reg. ,  to  lay  claim  to ;  to  pre- 
tend. 

preter,  v.  a.  reg.',  to  lend,  to  give, 
to  attribute;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
to  lend  ;  to  give,  to  stretch  (of 
a  thing)-,  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
give  way  to ;  to  indulge ;  to 
humor ;  to  favor. 

pre*texte,  n.  m.,  pretext,  pre- 
tence. 


VOCABULARY. 


187 


preValoir,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  prevail ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  take  ad- 
vantage, to  avail  one's  self. 

pre"venir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  precede,  to 
go  before ;  to  be  beforehand 
with,  to  anticipate  ;  to  preju- 
dice ;  to  predispose  ;  to  bias ; 
to  inform,  to  warn. 

preVoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  foresee,  to 
anticipate ;  to  provide  for  or 
against. 

prier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  pray,  to  beg, 
to  supplicate  ;  to  request ;  to 
invite,  to  bid. 

priere,  n.  f. ,  prayer,  petition  ;  re- 
quest, desire. 

Primatice,  n.  m. ,  Primaticcio ; 
Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and 
architect,  called  to  France  by 
Francis  I.  (1490-1570). 

prince,  n.  m.,  prince. 

principal,  adj.,  principal,  chief, 
main. 

principalement,  adj.,  principally, 
chiefly. 

printemps,  n.  m.,  spring,  spring- 
time ;  prime,  bloom. 

priver,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  deprive ;  to 
bereave ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  deprive  one's  self. 

prix,  n.  m.,  price,  cost,  value, 
worth ;  estimation ;  reward, 
prize. 

probable,  adj. ,  probable,  likely ; 
il  est  probable,  it  is  likely. 

probite",  n.  /. ,  probity,  honesty. 

proces,  n.  m. ,  lawsuit,  suit,  action, 
trial,  process. 

prochain,  adj. ,  near,  nearest,  next, 
approaching,  near  at  hand, 
nigh. 


prochain,  n.  m.,  fellow-creature, 
neighbor. 

proche,  prep. ,  near,  close,  nigh; 
proche  de  —  near,  close,  nigh. 

proclamer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  proclaim, 
to  cry  out,  to  give  out,  to  an- 
nounce. 

procurer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  procure, 
to  help  to,  to  gain,  to  get. 

prodigieux,  adj.,  prodigious,  won- 
drous, wonderful,  marvellous, 
vast,  stupendous. 

prodigue,  adj.,  prodigal,  profuse, 
lavish,  wasteful. 

prodiguer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  lavish, 
to  waste,  to  squander  away, 
to  be  lavish  of,  to  throw 
away. 

producteur,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  pro- 
ducer, producing. 

produire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  produce,  to 
bring  forth;  to  show,  to  exhibit, 
to  make  known  ;  to  yield,  to  be 
worth  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  in- 
troduce one's  self ;  to  make 
one's  way. 

profes,  adj.,  professed. 

prof esser,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  profess, 
to  make  a  profession  of ;  to 
practise,  to  teach,  to  be  a  pro- 
fessor of  ;  to  lecture  on. 

prof esseur,  n.  m. ,  professor ; 
teacher ;  lecturer. 

profit,  n.  m.,  profit,  gain,  emolu- 
ment; benefit,  utility;  improve- 
ment, progress  ;  use. 

profiler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  profit,  to 
gain  ;  to  benefit,  to  avail  one's 
self ;  to  improve. 

profond,  adj.,  deep,  dark,  pro- 
found, consummate. 


188 


VOCABULAKY. 


prof  ondeur,  n.  f. ,  depth ;  pro- 
foundness, profundity ;  pene- 
tration. 

projet,  n.  m.,  project,  scheme, 
design,  plan. 

projeter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  project,  to 
throw  forward;  to  plan,  to  con- 

;     trive,  to  scheme. 
i 
prolonger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  prolong, 

to  lengthen,  to  protract,  to 
lengthen  out,  to  draw  out ;  to 
spin  out ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
be  prolonged  ;  to  extend. 

promenade,  n.  f. ,  walking,  walk  ; 
walk,  promenade  ;  ambulatory. 

promener,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  take  out 
for  a  walk ;  to  take  out  walk- 
ing ;  to  take  for  a  drive  ;  to 
turn;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
walk,  to  promenade;  to  wander; 
to  extend. 

promettre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  promise  ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be  promising; 
to  bid  fair;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr., 
to  purpose,  to  resolve. 

promouvoir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  promote, 
to  prefer,  to  advance,  to  raise. 

prophe*tique,  adj. ,  prophetic,  pro- 
phetical. 

propos,  n.  m.,  discourse,  talk, 
words ;  purpose,  resolution  ;  a- 
propos  —  seasonable  words  ;  to 
the  point. 

proposer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  propose,  to 
move ;  to  propound  ;  [se  — ],  to 
propose,  to  purpose,  to  in- 
tend. 

propre,  adj.,  own;  very,  same; 
adapted,  appropriate,  calcu- 
lated, fit,  fitted ;  qualified, 
proper,  suitable;  clean,  proper ; 


neat,  tidy;  nice ;  accurate, 
right,  correct. 

proscrire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  proscribe, 
to  outlaw;  to  banish,  to  ex- 
pel. 

prose,  n.f.,  prose. 

protecteur,  n.  m.,  protector,  pa- 
tron. 

protester,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  protest; 
to  vow. 

provenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  spring 
from,  to  issue,  to  come  from, 
to  proceed  ;  to  accrue. 

province,  n.  /.,  province,  country; 
de  province  —  provincial. 

provoquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  provoke, 
to  incense  ;  to  promote  ;  to  in- 
stigate. 

prudent,  adj.,  prudent,  discreet, 
cautious. 

public,  adj.,  public. 

publique,  adj.  /.     (See  public.) 

puis,  adv. ,  then,  afterwards,  after 
that,  next. 

puisque,  conj.,  since,  seeing,  see- 
ing that. 

puissance,  n. /.,  power;  dominion, 
sway;  ability,  force ;  virtue, 
quality,  property. 

puissant,  adj.,  powerful,  potent, 
mighty;  stout ;  wealthy,  rich. 

punir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  punish,  to 
chastise. 

pupille,  n.  m.  or/.,  ward;  [ — ], 
n.  f. ,  apple  of  the  eye. 

pur,  adj.,  pure,  genuine,  unspot- 

~ted;    clean,    clear,  unmingled, 

unalloyed  ;  mere,  downright. 

pusillanime,  adj.,  timid,  pusillan- 
imous. 

Pyr£ue*es,  n.  f.  plu.,  Pyrenees, 


VOCABULARY. 


189 


Q 


Quadratique,  adj.,  quadratic. 

quadruple,  n.  m.,  quadruple,  four 
times. 

qualit^,  n.  f. ,  quality  ;  qualifica- 
tion, accomplishment,  title. 

quand,  adv.,  when,  whenever. 

quand,  cow/.,  although,  though. 

quant  a,  prep.,  with  regard  to, 
as  to,  as  for. 

quarante,  adj.,  forty. 

quarante  et  un,  adj. ,  forty-one. 

quatorze,  adj.,  fourteen. 

quatorzieme,  adj.,  fourteenth. 

quatre,  adj.,  four. 

quatre-vingt-deux,  adj. ,  eighty- 
two. 

quatre-vingt-dix,  adj.,  ninety. 

quatre-vingt-onze,  adj.,  ninety- 
one. 

quatre-vingts,  adj.,  eighty. 

quatre-vingt-un,  adj.,  eighty-one. 

quatrieme,  adj.,  fourth. 

que,  rel.  pro.,  whom,  that,  which, 
what. 

que,  inter,  pro.,  what. 

que,  conj.,  that;  if;  now;  how 
much,  how  many  ;  as,  when  ; 
unless ;  without ;  till,  until ; 
yet ;  lest,  for  fear  that ;  in  or- 
der that,  for;  before,  since,  so; 
than;  let ;  because  ;  why  ;  only, 
nothing  but ;  ne  .  .  .  que  — 
only,  but,  nothing  but. 

quel,  adj.  m.,  quelle,  /.,  quels,  in. 
plu.,  quelles, /.  plu.,  what. 

quelle,  adj.  f.     (See  quel.) 

quelque,  adj. ,  some,  any,  a  few  ; 
whatever,  whatsoever. 

quelque,  adv.,  about,  nearly. 


quel  .  .  .  que,  adj.,  however. 

quelque  chose,  indef.  pro. ,  some- 
thing, anything. 

quelquefois,  adv.,  sometimes. 

quelque  .  .  .  que,  adj.  and  adv., 
whatever,  however. 

quelques  unes,  indef.  pro.  (See 
quelqu'un.) 

quelqu'un,  indef.  pro.  m.,  quel- 
qu'une,  /.,  quelques  uns,  m., 
plu.,  quelques  unes,  /.  plu., 
some,  some  one,  somebody. 

que*rir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  fetch  (only 
used  in  the pres.  inf.). 

question,  n.  f.,  question,  issue. 

qui,  rel.  pro.,  who,  whoever, 
whosoever,  which,  that,  what. 

qui,  inter,  pro. ,  who,  which. 

quiconque,  indef.  pro.,  whoever, 
whosoever. 

qui  .  .  .  que,  pro. ,  whoever. 

quinzaine,  n.  f.,  fortnight;  dans 
la  quinzaine  —  within  a  fort- 
night. - 

quinze,  adj.,  fifteen. 

quinzieme,  adj.,  fifteenth. 

quitte,  adj. ,  discharged ;  quit, 
quits,  clear ;  free,  rid ;  quitte 
a  —  quite  clear  of,  at  the  risk  of. 

quitter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  quit,  to 
leave,  to  part  with ;  to  leave 
off;  to  lay  aside,  to  desist 
from  ;  to  give  up  ;  to  give  over; 
to  depart. 

quoi,  inter,  pro. ,  what. 

quoi,  rel.  pro.,  which,  what. 

quoi !  int. ,  what !  how  ! 

quoi  que,  pro. ,  whatever. 

quoique,  conj.,  although,  though. 


190 


VOCABULARY. 


R. 


Rabelais  (FranQois).  Author  of 
the  satirical  and  allegorical 
romance  of  the  adventures  of 
Gargantua  and  his  son  Panta- 
gruel  (1483-1553). 

race,  n.  /.,  race;  stock,  breed; 
variety. 

Racine  (Jean).  The  master  of 
French  tragic  poetry ;  Atha- 
lie,  Andromaque,  Phedre,  are 
among  the  most  noted  of  his 
dramas  (1639-1699). 

raconter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  relate,  to 
tell,  to  narrate,  to  recount. 

raide,  adj.,  stiff,  steep. 

raideur,  n.  /.,  stiffness. 

raidir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  stiffen,  to 
tighten. 

raison,  n.  /.,  reason,  sense, 
judgment ;  proof,  ground,  mo- 
tive ;  a  raison  de,  en  raison 
de  —  in  proportion  to ;  at  the 
rate  of  ;  avoir  raison  —  to  be 
right. 

raisonnable,  adj.,  rational,  reason- 
able, thinking,  sensible  ;  just ; 
proper,  right ;  adequate  ;  mod- 
erate ;  tolerable. 

rallumer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  light  again; 
to  rekindle,  to  kindle  again,  to 
light  up  anew. 

ramener,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  bring  again; 
to  bring  back  ;  to  retrieve  ;  to 
restore ;  to  reclaim. 

rang,  n.  m. ,  row,  range ;  rank, 
degree  ;  order  ;  class  ;  tier. 

rappeler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  call  again; 
to  call  back ;  to  recall,  to  call 
home  ;  to  call  to  mind  ;  [ — ], 


v.  n.  reg.,  to  beat  to  arms; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  recall,  to 
remember ;  to  recollect. 

rapport,  n.  m. ,  report,  statement, 
account ;  story ;  return  ;  re- 
semblance ;  harmony ;  refer- 
ence, connections. 

rapprendre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  learn 
again,  to  learn  anew. 

rapt,  n.  m.,  abduction,  rape. 

rare,  adj.,  rare,  scarce,  uncom- 
mon ;  few. 

rarement,  adv.,  rarely,  seldom, 
unfrequently,  not  often. 

ras,  adj.,  shaved,  bare,  smooth. 

rassasier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  satiate,  to 
satisfy. 

rassembler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  collect, 
to  assemble,  to  reassemble,  to 
gather  together ;  to  put  to- 
gether, to  get  together;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  assemble,  to 
congregate,  to  meet,  to  mus- 
ter. 

rasseoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  seat  again, 
to  reseat ;  to  settle  ;  to  calm  ; 
[— ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  settle  (liquids); 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  sit  down 
again  ;  to  be  seated  again. 

rassurer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  strengthen ; 
to  remove  one's  fears  ;  to  con- 
solidate ;  to  make  firm ;  to 
tranquillize,  to  reassure. 

ratteindre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  overtake, 
to  come  up  with  ;  to  retake,  to 
catch  again. 

ravi,  part,  adj.,  carried  away, 
transported ;  raptured ;  rav- 
ished. 


VOCABULARY. 


191 


ravir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  carry  off; 
to  take  away  ;  to  ravish ;  to 
charm,  to  delight,  to  enrapt- 
ure. 

ravissant,  adj.,  rapacious,  raven- 
ous ;  admirable,  ravishing,  de- 
lightful, lovely,  enchanting. 

ravoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  have  or  get 
again  ;  to  get  back. 

rayon,  n.  m.,  ray,  beam. 

rayonnant,  adj. ,  radiant,  shining, 
sparkling,  beaming. 

rebatir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  rebuild. 

rebelle,  n.  m.  f.  and  adj. ,  rebel ; 
rebellious,  disobedient ;  re- 
fractory. 

reboire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  drink  again. 

rebouillir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  boil 
again. 

rebuter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rebuff,  to 
repulse ;  to  thrust  away ;  to 
disgust,  to  shock. 

re*cemment,  adv. ,  recently,  newly. 

recevoir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  receive,  to 
accept,  to  take,  to  let  in  ;  to 
welcome ;  to  admit ;  to  allow 
of ;  to  entertain. 

re*ciproque,  adj.,  reciprocal,  mut- 
ual. 

re*cit,  n.  m.,  recital,  relation,  ac- 
count, narration,  statement. 

reciter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  recite,  to  re- 
peat, to  relate,  to  say. 

reclure,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  shut  up,  to 
confine,  to  sequester. 

re*colte,  n.  f. ,  harvest,  crop. 

recommander,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rec- 
ommend, to  charge,  to  enjoin, 
to  request. 

recommencer,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  re- 
commence, to  begin  again. 


r£compenser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rec- 
ompense, to  reward,  to  re- 
munerate ]  to  requite  ;  to  make 
amends. 

reconduire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  lead  back, 
to  show  out ;  to  accompany,  to 
see  home,  to  see  out. 

recOnnaitre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  recog- 
nize, to  know  again ;  to  ac- 
knowledge, to  confess,  to  admit, 
to  allow ;  to  discover ;  to  be 
grateful;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
know  one's  self ;  to  know  where 
one  is;  to  acknowledge  one's 
fault ;  to  know  one  another 
again. 

reconque*rir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  recon- 
quer ;  to  regain. 

reconstruire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  build 
again. 

recoudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  sew  or 
stitch  again. 

recourir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  run  again, 
to  have  recourse  to,  to  apply  to. 

recouvrir, v.  a.  irr.,  to  cover  again; 
to  hide,  to  mask  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
irr.,  to  cover  one's  self  again, 
to  be  covered  again,  to  be  hid- 
den again,  to  become  cloudy 
again. 

re"crire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  write  over 
again  ;  to  rewrite. 

recroitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  grow  again; 
to  spring  up  again. 

recueillir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  gather,  to 
reap;  to  get  together,  to  collect; 
to  pick  up;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr., 
to  collect  one's  self  ;  to  wrap 
one's  self  in  meditation. 

recuire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  cook  again; 
to  anneal. 


192 


VOCABULARY. 


reculer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  pull  back ; 
to  put  back;  to  put  off,  to  defer; 
to  extend;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
go  or  fall  back,  to  draw  back  ; 
to  retreat,  to  recede  ;  to  give 
ground ;  to  recoil. 

redevable,  n.  m.  f.  and  adj., 
debtor  ;  indebted ;  beholding, 
beholden. 

redevenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  become 
again. 

redevoir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  remain  in 
one's  debt,  to  owe  still. 

redire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  repeat,  to  re- 
late ;  to  tell  again ;  to  find 
fault  with. 

redormir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  sleep  again. 

redoutable,  adj.,  formidable,  re- 
doutable. 

redouter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  dread,  to 
fear. 

reMuire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  reduce,  to 
diminish,  to  compel ;  to  subju- 
gate ;  to  oblige;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
irr. ,  to  be  reduced,  to  come,  to 
amount. 

r£el,  adj.,  real,  true,  actual;  sub- 
stantial. 

re*e"lire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  reelect. 

rSellement,  adv.,  really;  in  reality. 

refaire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  do  again  ;  to 
remake ;  to  make  anew ;  to 
recommence  ;  to  deal  again  ; 
to  refresh ;  to  mend ;  to  re- 
pair. 

refermer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  shut  again; 
to  close  again. 

re'fle'cliir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  reflect,  to 
reflect  back,  to  throw  back  ;  to 
reverberate;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
to  reflect,  to  reflect  on,  to  think, 


to  consider,  to  ponder ;  to 
realize;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
reflect,  to  be  reflected. 

inflexion,  n.  /.,  reflection, thought. 

refuser,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  refuse  ; 
to  decline  ;  to  deny;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  refuse  one's  self, 
to  shun,  to  avoid,  to  resist. 

regagner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  regain,  to 
get  again,  to  win  back,  to  re- 
cover ;  to  retrieve  ;  to  rejoin, 
to  reach,  to  gain  over. 

re*gal,  n.  m. ,  feast,  banquet,  enter- 
tainment ;  treat. 

regard,  n.  m.,  regard,  glance, 
look,  gaze,  stare. 

regarder,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  look  at, 
on,  into,  up  to  ;  to  behold  ;  to 
consider  ;  to  concern  ;  [ — ] ,  v. 
n.  reg.,  to  look,  to  face,  to  be 
opposite,  to  mind,  to  pay  atten- 
tion to. 

regime,  n.  m.,  regime,  rule,  reign. 

re"gler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rule,  to  regu- 
late ;  to  order ;  to  settle ;  to 
determine,  to  decide  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  regulate  one's  self 
by;  to  imitate,  to  follow  the 
example  of,  to  be  guided. 

re"gner,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  reign,  to 
govern,  to  rule,  to  prevail ;  to 
be  in  fashion. 

Re"gnier-Desmarais  (FranQois-Se- 
raphin),  author,  and  secretary 
of  the  French  academy  (1632- 
1713). 

regretter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  regret. 

re"gulierement,  adv. ,  regularly, 
punctually. 

rehacher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rehash,  to 
repeat  continually. 


VOCABULARY. 


193 


reine,  n.  /.,  queen. 

rejeter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  throw  again; 
to  drive,  to  throw  back ;  to 
cast,  to  throw  up  or  out  ;  to 
throw,  to  throw  away;  to  put, 
to  shoot  forth  (plants);  to  re- 
fuse to  accept,  to  reject ;  to  set 
aside  ;  to  deny. 

rejoindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  join  again; 
to  rejoin;  to  meet  again;  to  re- 
unite; to  overtake. 

re*jouir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  rejoice,  to 
gladden;  to  divert,  to  entertain; 
to  make  merry;  to  cheer,  to 
exhilarate. 

relever,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  raise  again, 
to  lift  up  again  ;  to  restore  ;  to 
raise  ;  to  heighten,  to  relieve, 
to  set  off ;  to  extol ;  to  notice, 
to  remark  ;  to  take  up  ;  to  give 
a  relish  to  ;  to  liberate,  to  free; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  recover,  to 
get  better  ;  to  turn  up  ;  to  de- 
pend ;  to  be  dependent. 

religieux,  adj.,  religious,  spiritual; 
exact,  strict,  punctual. 

relire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  read  again. 

reluire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  glitter,  to 
glisten  ;  to  reflect. 

remarquable,  adj.,  remarkable, 
observable,  conspicuous. 

remarquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  mark 
again;  to  note,  to  observe,  to 
notice,  to  take  notice ;  to  re- 
mark, to  distinguish;  ge  faire 
remarquer  —  to  attract  notice, 
to  distinguish  one's  self. 

Rembrandt,  n.  m.,  Rembrandt. 

remercier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  thank,  to 
give  thanks ;  to  decline,  to 
discharge. 


remettre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  put  back; 
to  put  on  again ;  to  reinstate ; 
to  restore,  to  restore  to  health, 
to  tranquillize  ;  to  delay,  to  put 
off ;  to  pardon ;  to  remit ;  to 
intrust,  to  commit ;  to  leave. 

remonter,  v. .  a.  reg.,  to  mount 
again. 

remoudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  grind 
again. 

rempart,  n.  m.,  rampart,  bulwark. 

remplacer,  a  a.  reg.,  to  replace, 
to  take  the  place  of;  to  serve 
as  a  substitute. 

remplir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  fill  again ; 
to  fill,  to  fill  up;  to  cram,  to 
stuff ;  to  take  up,  to  occupy ; 
to  supply,  to  furnish ;  to  dis- 
charge, to  perform  ;  to  answer, 
to  come  up  to  ;  to  pay  back. 

Renaissance,  n.  /.,  Renaissance. 

renaitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be  born 
again ;  to  spring  up  again ;  to 
revive;  to  come  again;  to  ap- 
pear again. 

rencontre,  n.  /.,  meeting,  chance; 
coincidence,  occasion,  encoun- 
ter ;  faire.  la  rencontre  —  to 
meet. 

rendez-vous,  n.  m.,  rendezvous, 
meeting,  appointment ;  place 
of  meeting,  place  of  resort. 

rendormir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  lull  asleep 
again ;  to  put  to  sleep  again. 

rendre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  render,  to 
return,  to  give  back ;  to  repay  ; 
to  deliver  up  ;  to  yield  ;  to  sur- 
render ;  to  carry  ;  to  eject ;  to 
throw  up  or  off ;  to  make,  to 
produce ;  to  translate  ;  to  ex- 
press,  to  represent. 


194 


VOCABULARY. 


rene,  n.  f. ,  rein. 

renoncer,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  re- 
nounce ;  to  disclaim  ;  to  deny  ; 
to  give  up ;  to  forego ;  to  re- 
voke ;  to  relinquish. 

rentraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  fine-draw; 
to  darn. 

rentier,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  enter  again, 
to  return  ;  to  become  again  ;  to 
recover  ;  to  re-open  ;  to  resume ; 
[ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to  take  in,  to 
bring  in,  to  put  in. 

renvoyer,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  send  again; 
to  send  back ;  to  return ;  to 
reverberate;  to  reflect,  to  refer; 
to  dismiss,  to  discharge. 

repaitre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  feed,  to 
feast ;  to  delight. 

re*pandre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  spill,  to 
shed  ;  to  diffuse,  to  scatter  ;  to 
distribute,  to  bestow,  to  give 
out,  to  spread ;  to  exhale ;  to 
spread  abroad. 

reparaitre,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  reappear, 
to  appear  again,  to  appear 
anew,  to  make  one's  reappear- 
ance. 

repartir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  set  out 
again  ;  to  set  off  again. 

repartir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  divide,  to 
distribute  ;  to  assess. 

repeindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  paint 
again ;  to  retouch ;  to  touch 
up. 

repentir  (se),  v.  r.  irr.,  to  re- 
pent. 

r£pe*ter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  repeat ;  to 
say  again,  to  tell  again ;  to  re- 
cite ;  to  claim  again,  to  de- 
mand again  ;  to  .rehearse  ;  to 
reflect  (fig.),  to  mirror. 


re"pondre,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  answer; 
to  reply  ;  to  lead,  to  respond. 

reporter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  carry  back, 
to  take  back;  to  trace  back, 
to  trace ;  to  carry  forward,  to 
carry  over,  to  report. 

repos,  n.  m.,  repose  ;  rest ;  quiet; 
peace,  stillness. 

reposer,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  place  again, 
to  lay  again ;  to  rest  (on  any- 
thing), to  repose,  to  settle,  to 
refresh  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  rest, 
to  lie ;  to  repose ;  to  lay  one's 
self  down,  to  lie  down ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  rest,  to  repose,  to 
lie  down ;  to  rely  on,  to  con- 
fide in ;  to  pause. 

repousser,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  repel ; 
to  drive  back ;  to  beat,  force, 
push  back ;  to  repulse,  to  re- 
sent ;  to  rebuff ;  to  shoot  out 
again ;  to  recoil, 

reprendre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  take  back, 
to  retake  ;  to  resume  ;  to  seize 
again  ;  to  regain  ;  to  acquire  ; 
to  reprove  ;  to  sew  up ;  to  con- 
tinue ;  to  reply ;  to  freeze 
again ;  to  strike  root ;  to  re- 
vive ;  to  heal ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
irr. ,  to  heal ;  to  close ;  to  cor- 
rect one's  self. 

repre"sentant,  n.  m.,  representa- 
tive ;  representant. 

representation,  n.  f.,  representa- 
tion, exhibition,  production, 
performance  ;  display,  show  ; 
appearance,  mien ;  air. 

repre*senter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  repre- 
sent, to  present  again;  to  show; 
to  exhibit ;  to  lay  before  ;  to 
produce  ;  to  reflect,  to  depict ; 


VOCABULARY. 


195 


to  describe ;  to  look  like,  to 
resemble ;  to  perform,  to  act, 
to  play ;  to  stand  in  the  place 
of;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  repre- 
sent, to  set  forth  ;  to  maintain, 
to  keep  one's  dignity,  to  have 
an  imposing  appearance ;  [se 
— ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  present  one's 
self  again,  to  appear  again ; 
to  fancy,  to  imagine,  to  picture 
to  one's  self ;  to  occur ;  to  pre- 
sent itself  again. 

re*primander,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  repri- 
mand, to  rebuke,  to  reprove. 

re*primer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  repress,  to 
restrain ;  to  curb,  to  quell ;  to 
keep  down,  to  check. 

reprocher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  reproach, 
to  expostulate,  to  upbraid. 

rSpublicain,  adj.,  republican. 

re*publique,  n.  f. ,  republic. 

re*pugner,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  be  re- 
pugnant ;  to  be  contrary,  to 
clash  with  ;  to  feel  reluctant. 

requerir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  request;  to 
beg  ;  to  require  ;  to  demand  ; 
to  summon. 

re*signer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  resign,  to 
give  up  ;  to  submit. 

re*sister,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  resist,  to 
oppose,  to  withstand ;  to  en- 
dure. 

resolution,  n.  f.,  resolution,  de- 
cision, determination,  resolve. 

re*soudre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  resolve  ;  to 
dissolve,  to  melt ;  to  solve ;  to 
decide  (jur.),  to  cancel,  to 
make  void ;  to  determine,  to 
decide  on;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr., 
to  resolve,  to  determine  ;  to  be 
prevailed  upon. 


respect,  n.  m.,  respect,   regard, 

reverence,   deference,    dutiful- 
ness. 
respecter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  respect,  to 

reverence,  to  revere  ;    [se  — ], 

v.  r.  reg.,  to  respect  one's  self ; 

to  respect  each  other, 
respirer,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  breathe,  to 

respire  ;  to  take  breath,  to  rest; 

to  long  for  ;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 

breathe,    to    inhale,    to    thirst 

after, 
ressentir,   v.  a.    irr.,  to  feel,  to 

experience ;     to    manifest,    to 

show;    [se  — ],  v.    r.   irr.,   to 

feel  the   effects   of,  to  resent, 

to  perceive, 
ressortir,   v.    n.    irr.,   to  go   out 

again ;     to    be    set    off    (of   a 

thing). 
ressouvenir    (se),   v.   r.    irr.,    to 

recollect,  to  remember, 
reste,    n.    m.,    rest,    remainder, 

remnant, 
rester,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  remain,  to 

be  left ;    to  stay ;   to  stop,  to 

continue,    to    keep ;     [ — ],    v. 

imper.,    to   remain,   to    be    in 

store. 
restreindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  restrict, 

to  restrain,  to  limit,  to  confine; 

to  stint. 

re*sultat,  n.  m.,  result. 
re*sulter,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  result,  to 

follow,  to  be  the  consequence. 
reteindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  dye  again, 
retenir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  get  again  ; 

to  retain,  to  keep,  to  withhold; 

to  keep  back,  to  restrain;   to 

reserve  ;    to  curb  ;    to  hinder ; 

to  remember. 


196 


VOCABULARY. 


retentissement,  n.  m.,  resound- 
ing, echo. 

retourner,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  turn,  to 
turn  up  ;  to  revolve  ;  [ — ],  v. 
n.  reg.,  to  turn  back,  to  go 
again,  to  return ;  [se  — ],  v. 
r.  reg.,  to  return,  to  turn 
round. 

retraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  (jur.),  to  re- 
deem an  estate. 

retraite,  n.  f. ,  retreat ;  refuge  ; 
hiding-place. 

retrouver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  find 
again ;  to  recover ;  to  meet 
again;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
find  one*s  way  again,  to  be 
found  again,  to  be  found ;  to 
be  again  met  with. 

re*unir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  re-unite,  to 
join  again ;  to  bring  together 
again ;  to  unite,  to  join,  to 
annex ;  to  collect,  to  assemble  ; 
to  call  together,  to  combine ; 
to  reconcile,  to  unite. 

re"ussir,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  succeed, 
to  prosper,  to  thrive,  to  be  suc- 
cessful. 

revaloir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  return  like 
for  like  ;  to  be  even  with. 

reve,  n.  m.,  dream. 

reVeil,  n.  m. ,  waking,  awaking ; 
a  mon  reVeil  —  on  my  awaking. 

re*veiller,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  awake,  to 
wake,  to  rouse,  to  call  up  ;  to 
stir  up,  to  quicken,  to  revive. 

revenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  come  again, 
to  come  back,  to  return  ;  to 
recover ;  to  be  restored ;  to 
resume  ;  to  alter  one's  mind  ; 
to  retract ;  s'en  revenir  —  to 
return,  to  come  back  again. 


rever,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  dream ;  to 
rave  ;  to  talk  idly  ;  to  muse  : 
to  think ;  to  reflect,  to  con- 
sider; [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
dream,  to  long  for,  to  desire 
ardently,  to  dream  of. 

reverie,  n.  f. ,  revery,  musing ; 
dream  ;  delirium. 

revetir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  clothe; 
to  give  clothes  to ;  to  dress ; 
to  put  on,  to  assume,  to  in- 
vest. 

revivre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  come  to  life 
again ;  to  revive. 

revoir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  see  again  ;  to 
meet  again;  to  revise,  to  re- 
view. 

revolver,  n.  m.,  revolver. 

Rhone,  n.  m.,  Khone. 

riant,  adj.,  laughing,  smiling, 
cheerful ;  pleasant. 

richesse,  n.  f.,  riches,  wealth, 
opulence  ;  copiousness ;  rich- 
ness. 

rien,  pro.     (See  rien,  n.  m.) 

rien,  n.  m.,  nothing,  nought, 
not  anything,  anything;  mere 
nothing,  trifle,  mere  trifle;  n.e 
.  .  .  rien  —  nothing. 

rire,  n.  m.,  laugh,  laughter. 

rire,  v.  n.  irr. ,  to  laugh  ;  to  be 
merry;  to  joke  ;  to  trifle ;  to 
scoff  at. 

risquer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  risk,  to 
hasard,  to  venture,  to  run  the 
risk  of. 

rival,  adj.,  rival. 

rivalit^,  n.  f.,  rivalry,  competi- 
tion, emulation. 

rive,  n.  /.,  shore,  bank. 

riviere,  n.  f. ,  river. 


VOCABULARY. 


197 


robe,  n.  f. ,  dress,  robe,  gown. 

roc,  n.  m.,  rock. 

rocher,  n.  m.,  rock  (ordinarily 
somewhat  elevated  and  pointed). 

roi,  n.  m.,  king. 

roide.     (See  raide.) 

roideur.     (See  raideur.) 

roidir.     (See  raidir.) 

Remain,  n.  in.  and  adj. ,  Roman, 
Romish. 

romance,  n.  /.,  song,  ballad. 

romancier,  n.  m.,  novelist. 

rompre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  break, 
to  break  asunder,  to  snap ; 
to  break  off,  to  dissolve  ;  to 
train,  to  break  in,  to  use ; 
to  rupture  ;  to  ruin  ;  to  spoil ; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  break, 
to  break  asunder ;  to  break 
up ;  to  discontinue,  to  have 
done. 

rose,  n.  /.,  rose. 

rossignol,  n.  m.,  nightingale. 

Rouen,  n.  m.,  Rouen,  an  im- 
portant and  ancient  city  in  the 


N.  -W.  of  France,  formerly 
capital  of  Normandy. 

rouge,  adv.,  red. 

rougir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  redden  ;  [ — ], 
v.  n.  reg. ,  to  redden,  to  color, 
to  blush. 

roussatre,  adj.,  reddish,  ruddy. 

rousse,  adj.f.     (See  roux.) 

Rousseau  (Jean- Jacques),  philos- 
opher and  author,  born  at 
Geneva  (1712-1778). 

route,  n.  f. ,  road,  route,  way ; 
journey;  en  route  —  on  the 
road  or  way;  on  one's  way  or 
journey. 

rouvrir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  open  again. 

roux,  adj.  m.,  rousse,  /.,  reddish, 
russet. 

rue,  n.  f. ,  street. 

ruine,  n.  /.,  ruin,  decay;  over- 
throw; disaster. 

ruisseau,  n.  m.,  stream. 

ruse*,  adj.,  sly,  cunning. 

rustique,  adj.,  rustic,  rural ;  rude, 
coarse  ;  artless  ;  boorish. 


Sa,  poss.  adj.    (See  son.) 

sable,  n.  m. ,  sand  ;  gravel. 

sacrifice,  n.  m. ,  sacrifice,  offering. 

sacrifier,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  sacrifice, 
to  make  offerings ;  to  immo- 
late ;  to  devote  time  to  a 
thing. 

sagacite",  n.  f.,  sagacity,  acute- 
ness,  shrewdness. 

sage,  adj,.  sage,  wise,  rational, 
judicious. 

sagement,  adv. ,  wisely,  sensibly  ; 
prudently,  soberly. 

sagesse,  n,  f. ,  wisdom, 


saillie,  n.  /.,  jutting  out,  pro- 
jecture ;  prominence ;  start, 
sudden  gush,  spurt;  sally;  flash 
of  wit,  witticism. 

saillir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  project,  to 
jut  out,  to  protrude  ;  (point) 
to  stand  out;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr., 
to  leap,  to  cover,  to  serve. 

Saint-Evremond  (Charles  deMar- 
guetel  de  Saint-Denis,  seigneur 
de),  author.  His  letters  written 
from  England  to  friends  in 
France,  are  quite  celebrated 
(1613-1703), 


198 


VOCABULARY. 


Saint- Jean,  n.  m.,  St.  John's  day. 

Saint-Malo,  n.  m.,  Saint  Malo,  a 
seaport  of  France,  at  the  naouth 
of  the  river  Ranee. 

Saint-Simon  (Due  de),  son  of  a 
former  page  of  Louis  XIII. 
He  wrote  the  celebrated  "  Me- 
moires,"  which  give  a  vivid 
account  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  of  the  Regency  (1675- 
1755). 

saisir,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  seize,  to  seize 
upon,  to  catch,  to  catch  hold 
of,  to  lay  hold  of,  to  get  hold 
of,  to  take  hold  of ;  to  strike  ; 
to  impress;  to  embrace,  to  avail 
one's  self  of ;  to  understand,  to 
perceive,  to  discern,  to  com- 
prehend ;  to  attack. 

salle,  n.  f. ,  hall ;  room  ;  salle  a 
manger  —  dining-room. 

salon,  n.  m. ,  drawing-room ;  sa- 
loon, parlor ;  exhibition  (of 
paintings  or  works  of  art). 

Sand  (Georges),  pseudonym  of 
Amantine-Lucile-Aurore  Du- 
pin,  Baroness  Dudevant,  a  tal- 
ented novelist  (1804-1876). 

sang,  n.  m.,  blood. 

sanglant,  adj.,  bloody,  outra- 
geous. 

sans,  prep.,  without,  but  for. 

sans  que,  conj.  loc.,  without. 

sapin,  n.  m.,  fir,  fir-tree. 

satie*te*,  n.  f. ,  satiety,  surfeit,  ful- 
ness. 

satisf aire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  satisfy,  to 
please  ;  to  give  satisfaction  ;  to 
supply;  to  answer  one's  ex- 
pectation ;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr., 
to  indulge  one's  self. 


satisf  ait,  adj.,  satisfied,  con- 
tented, pleased. 

sauf,  adj.,  safe,  unhurt,  un- 
scathed ;  sain  et  sauf  —  safe 
and  sound. 

sauf,  prep. ,  saving,  save,  except, 
but ;  reserving ;  sauf  a  —  ex- 
cept. 

sauter,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  leap,  to  leap 
off,  to  jump,  to  skip  ;  to  spring; 
[— ],  v,  a.  reg.,  to  leap,  to  leap 
over ;  to  overlook,  to  pass 
over  ;  to  leave  out,  to  skip. 

sauvage,  n.  m.  f.  and  adj.,  savage, 
wild  man,  woman ;  savage, 
wild,  untamed  ;  shy  ;  rude. 

sauver,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  save,  to  de- 
liver, to  rescue ;  to  keep ;  to 
economize ;  to  conceal ;  to  ex- 
cuse, to  vindicate  ;  [se  — ],  v. 
r.  reg.,  to  escape,  to  run  away; 
to  abscond  ;  to  take  refuge  ;  to 
retrieve  one's  self ;  sauve  qui 
peut  —  let  him  save  himself 
who  can. 

savoir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  know,  to 
have  a  knowledge  of  ;  to  under- 
stand ;  to  be  sensible  of,  to  be 
acquainted  with ;  pas  que  je 
sache  —  not  that  I  know,  not 
to  my  knowledge  ;  que  je  sache 
—  as  far  as  I  know  ;  [ — ],  v.  n. 
irr.,  to  know,  to  be  learned, 
to  be  a  scholar ;  a  savoir  — 
namely;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
become  known. 

scandaliser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  scan- 
dalize, to  be  the  cause  of  scan- 
dal. 

scene,  n.f.,  scene;  stage;  scenery; 
drama ;  occurrence  ;  quarrel. 


VOCABULARY. 


199 


sceptique,  n.  in.  smdadj.,  sceptic, 
sceptical. 

scintiller,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  scintillate, 
to  sparkle. 

sculpteur,  n.  in. ,  sculptor,  carver. 

sculpture,  n.  f. ,  sculpture. 

se,  per.  pro. ,  one's  self,  himself, 
herself,  itself,  themselves ;  one 
another,  each  other. 

sec,  adj.  in.,  seche,  /.,  dry,  thin, 
lean,  spare  ;  plain;  cold,  sharp. 

second,  adj.,  second. 

secouer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  shake,  to 
shake  off ;  to  jolt,  to  toss;  to 
discard;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
shake  one's  self,  to  take  exer- 
cise ;  to  move  about. 

secourir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  succor,  to 
assist,  to  relieve,  to  help. 

secret,  adj.,  secret. 

se*curite",  n.  f. ,  security. 

se*duire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  seduce,  to 
delude,  to  beguile  ;  to  bewitch; 
to  suborn,  to  bribe. 

seigneur,  n.  in.,  lord ;  sir. 

sein,  n.  in.,  breast,  bosom;  heart; 
middle  ;  womb. 

Seine,  n.  f. ,  Seine. 

seize,  adj.,  sixteen. 

s£jour,  n.  in.,  sojourn,  stay,  abode. 

selle,  n.  f. ,  saddle. 

semaine,  n.  f. ,  week. 

semblable,  n.  in.,  fellow-creature, 
fellow  ;  match,  equal. 

sembler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  seem,  to 
appear ;  il  semble,  v.  imper. , 
it  seems,  it  appears,  it  would 
appear. 

semer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  sow,  to  scat- 
ter; to  spread;  to  strew,  to 
sprinkle,  to  disseminate. 


sens,  n.  in.,  sense,  senses,  under- 
standing, judgment;  intellect; 
reason,  intelligence ;  opinion, 
sentiment ;  meaning,  import ; 
way,  direction. 

sentier,  n.  in.,  path,  foot-path, 
track. 

sentiment,  n.  in. ,  sentiment ; 
feeling,  sensation  ;  perception  ; 
sense,  consciousness,  sensibili- 
ty ;  opinion. 

sentir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  feel,  to  be 
sensible  of  ;  to  smell,  to  scent ; 
to  taste,  to  savor  ;  to  look  like; 
[ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  have  an  odor; 
to  have  a  bad  smell ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  irr.,  to  be  conscious  of. 

seoir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  sit.  (See  pages 
57,  73.) 

seoir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  suit,  to  be- 
come. (See  pages  57,  74.) 

separation,  n.  f. ,  separation. 

se*parer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  separate;  to 
sever ;  to  divide,  to  disjoin  ;  to 
disconnect ;  to  part,  to  set 
apart,  to  drive  asunder;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  reg.,  to  separate,  to  sever, 
to  part,  to  break  up  (of  assem- 
blies). 

sept,  adj.,  seven. 

septieme,  adj.,  seventh. 

se"rail,  n.  m.,  seraglio. 

se"rie,  n.  f.,  series. 

se*rieusement,  adv.,  seriously. 

se"rieux,  adj.,  serious,  grave,  staid; 
earnest,  real. 

serpent,  n.  m.,  serpent. 

service,  n.  m. ,  service ;  atten- 
dance, duty ;  set ;  course. 

servile,  adj.,  servile,  menial; 
slavish,  cringing. 


200 


VOCABULARY. 


servir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  serve,  to  wait 
on,  to  attend  ;  to  be  of  use ; 
to  help;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to 
serve,  to  be  employed;  to  bring 
in  dinner  or  supper  ;  [se  — ] , 
v.  r.  irr.,  to  be  served,  to  use. 

serviteur,  n.  m.,  servant. 

ses,  poss.  adj.     (See  son.) 

seul,  adj.,  alone,  by  one's  self; 
singly,  mere,  only,  sole. 

seulement,  adv. ,  only,  but,  mere- 
ly, solely. 

severe,  adj.,  severe,  rigid,  strict, 
stern;  noble  and  regular;  pure, 
correct. 

Se*vign£  (Marie  de  Rabutin-Chan- 
tal,  Marquise  de),  1026-1696. 

Seville,  n.  in.,  Seville,  an  impor- 
tant city  of  southern  Spain, 
capital  of  Andalusia. 

si,  adv. ,  so,  so  much  ;  however ; 
yes. 

si,  conj.,  if;  whether;  neverthe- 
less ;  si  bien  que,  conj.  loc. ,  so 
that ;  si  ce  n'est  que,  conj.  loc., 
unless,  except ;  si  non  que, 
conf.  loc. ,  if  not  that ;  si  peu 
que,  conj.  loc. ,  however  little  ; 
si  ...  que,  conj.  loc.,  what- 
ever ;  si  tant  est  que,  conj. 
loc. ,  if  it  ^is  true  that,  if ;  sup- 
posing. 

siecle,  n.-m.,  century  ;  age,  time, 
world;  period. 

sien  (le),  poss.  pro.  m.,  (la) 
sienne, /.,  his  hers,  its;  (les) 
siens  —  one's  relations,  friends, 
men,  servants,  subjects,  dy- 
nasty. 

signe,  n.  m.,  sign,  mark;  beckon, 
nod;  token,  badge ;  faire  gigue 


de  la  main  —  to  beckon  with 

the  hand, 
signification,  n.  /.,  signification, 

meaning, 
silence,  n.  m. ,  silence,  stillness ; 

pause. 

silencieux,  adj.,  silent,  still, 
sincere,  adj.,  sincere,  true, 
singulier,  adj.,  singular,  strange, 

queer,  odd. 
sitot,    adv. ,    so    soon,    as    soon ; 

sitot  que,  conj.  loc.,  as  soon  as. 
situer,   v.    a.   recj.,   to  place,   to 

situate, 
six,  adj.,  six. 

sixain,  n.  m.,  a  sequence  of  six. 
sixaine,  n.  f. ,  half  a  dozen, 
sixieme,  adj.,  sixth. 
Sixte-Quint,   n.    m.,   Pope    Six- 

tus  V. 

social,  adj.,  social. 
soeur,  n.  f. ,  sister. 
soi,  per.  pro.,  one's  self,  self,  itself. 
soie,  n.  /.,  silk,  hair  (of  animals). 
soif ,  n.  f. ,  thirst ;  avoir  soif  —  to 

be  thirsty. 

soi-meme,  pro.,  one's  self  ;  itself. 
soin,  n.  m.,  care,  attendance  on; 

plu. ,  attentions ;   prendre  soin 

de  —  to   take    care   of.      (See 

prendre. ) 

soir,  n.  m.,  evening, 
soil,  adv. ,  be  it  so  ;   let  it  be  so ; 

I  grant  it. 
soil,  conj. ,  either  ;  whether ;  or. 

soil  .  .  .  soil — whether  .  .  .  or. 
soil  que,  conj.  loc.,  whether, 
soixante,  adj.,  sixty. 
soixante-dix,  adj.,  seventy. 
soixante-dix-huit?  adj.,   seventy- 

eight, 


VOCABULARY. 


201 


soixante-dkx-neuf,  adj.,  seventy- 
nine. 

soixante-dix-sept,  ad/.,  seventy- 
seven. 

soixante-douze,  ad/.,  seventy-two. 

soixante  et  onze,  adj.,  seventy-one. 

soixante  et  un,  adj. ,  sixty-one. 

soixante-quatorze,  ad/.,  seventy- 
four. 

soixante-quinze,  adj.,  seventy- 
five. 

soixante-seize,  adj.,  seventy-six. 

soixante-treize,  adj. ,  seventy- 
three. 

sol,  n.  m.,  soil;  ground. 

soldat,  n.  m.,  soldier. 

soleil,  n.  m.,  sun. 

solennel,  adj.,  solemn. 

solennellement,  adv.,  solemnly. 

solenniser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  solem- 
nize ;  to  celebrate. 

solennite",  n.  f. ,  solemnity. 

solitaire,  adj.,  solitary,  lonely, 
lonesome ;  desert. 

solitude,  n.f.,  solitude. 

solliciter,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  solicit. 

sombre,  adj.,  dark,  sombre,  dull, 
gloomy,  overcast,  melancholy, 
sad. 

somme,  n.  /.,  sum,  amount. 

sommeil,  n.  m.,  sleep;  avoir  som- 
meil  —  to  be  sleepy. 

sommer,  v.  a.  reg.Y  to  summon, 
to  call  upon,  to  challenge. 

son,  n.  m.,  sound. 

son,  poss.  adj.  m.,  sa,/.,  ses,plu., 
his,  her,  its,  one's. 

songer,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  dream,  to 
muse  ;  to  think  ;  to  imagine ; 
to  intend,  to  devise,  to  purpose, 
to  propose. 


sort,  n.  m.,  fate,  lot. 

sorte,  n.  /.,  sort,  kind,  species, 
manner,  way  ;  de  sorte  que,  en 
sorte  que,  conj.  loc.,  so  that; 
so  as. 

sortir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  go  out,  to  go 
forth;  to  emerge,  to  proceed, 
to  rise,  to  depart ;  to  result ;  0to 
deviate;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr.,  to  get 
out,  to  bring  or  carry  out,  to 
extricate  ;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr.,  (jur.), 
to  obtain,  to  have. 

soucier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  cause  care ; 
[se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  care,  to 
mind,  to  be  concerned,  to  be 
uneasy,  to  be  anxious. 

soudain,  adv.,  suddenly,  on  a 
sudden,  all  of  a  sudden. 

souffle,  n.  m.,  breath,  breathing; 
(fig.),  inspiration,  influence. 

souffrance,  n.  f.,  suffering,  suffer- 
ance ;  endurance. 

souffrir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  suffer,  to 
bear,  to  endure,  to  tolerate ;  to 
permit ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr.,  to  suf- 
fer, to  suffer  pain,  to  be  pained, 
to  be  injured. 

souhaiter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  desire,  to 
wish,  to  long  for. 

souiller,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  soil,  to 
stain,  to  sully,  to  defile,  to  con- 
taminate. 

souloir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be  wont,  to 
use.  (See  page  137.) 

soumettre,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  submit,  to 
subdue,  to  subject ;  to  over- 
come ;  to  subjugate  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  irr.,  to  submit,  to  yield, 
to  give  way  ;  to  succumb. 

soupponner,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  suspect, 
to  surmise. 


202 


VOCABULARY. 


souper,  n.  m.,  supper. 

souper,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  sup,  to  take 
supper. 

sourd,  adj.,  deaf,  insensible;  se- 
cret ;  underhand  ;  dull ;  dark  ; 
rumbling,  hollow ;  confused. 

sourdre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  spring,  to 
.issue,  to  arise. 

sourire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  smile,  to  be 
agreeable,  to  please. 

sous,  prep. ,  under,  beneath ;  sub ; 
deputy. 

souscrire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  subscribe, 
to  sign. 

soustraire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  take 
away,  to  remove  ;  to  shelter, 
to  screen  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
escape,  to  avoid,  to  flee. 

soutenir,  v.  a.  irr,  to  support,  to 
sustain  ;  to  bear  up ;  to  main- 
tain; to  uphold,  to  back,  to 
stand  by  ;  to  endure  ;  [se  — ], 
v.  r.  irr.,  to  support  one's  self; 
to  stand  up ;  to  hold  out ;  to 
succeed. 

souvenir,  n.  m.,  remembrance,  rec- 
ollection, memory  ;  keep-sake. 

souvenir  (se),  v.  r.  irr.,  to  re- 
member, to  recollect;  to  call 
to  mind,  to  bear  in  mind. 

souvent,  adv.,  often,  frequently, 
many  times. 

spectacle,  n.  m.,  spectacle ;  scene, 
sight ;  play  ;  performance. 

stagnant,  adj.,  stagnant. 

stagnation,  n.  /.,  stagnation. 

sublime,  n.  m.  and  adj. ,  sublime, 
sublimity. 

subsister,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  subsist ; 
to  exist ;  to  live ;  to  continue  ; 
to  be  in  force. 


subvenir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  relieve,  to 
help  ;  to  supply,  to  provide. 

succes,  n.  m.,  success. 

sud,  7i.  m.,  south. 

suffire,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  suffice,  to  be  suf- 
ficient, to  be  enough ;  to  be  ade- 
quate; [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  sup- 
port, to  provide  for  one's  self. 

sugge"rer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  hint,  to 
suggest,  to  intimate. 

suggestion,  n.  f. ,  suggestion. 

Suisse,  n.  f. ,  Switzerland. 

suivant,  prep.,  according  to, 
agreeably  to;  suivant  que, 
conj.  loc.,  as,  according  as. 

suivre,  v.  a.  n.  irr.,  to  follow,  to 
go  after,  to  go  next,  to  pursue, 
to  attend ;  to  accompany  ;  to 
follow,  to  observe ;  [se  — ],  v. 
r.  irr. ,  to  follow  each  other,  to 
succeed  each  other,  to  be  con- 
nected. 

sujet,  n.  m.,  subject;  person,  in- 
dividual ;  cause,  reason  ;  mat- 
ter, motive,  occasion,  ground, 
account ;  theme,  topic. 

Sully  (Maximilien  de  Bethune, 
Baron  de  Eosny,  afterwards 
Duke  of),  friend  and  councillor 
of  Henry  IV.  (1559-1641). 

Sully-Prudhomme,  poet,  member 
of  the  French  academy.  Born 
at  Paris  in  1839. 

superbe,  adj.,  superb,  lofty. 

supe*rieur,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  supe- 
rior, upper. 

superiority,  n.  f. ,  superiority. 

supplice,  n.  m.,  corporal  punish- 
ment; torment,  pain,  anguish. 

supplier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  supplicate, 
to  entreat,  to  beseech. 


VOCABULARY. 


203 


supporter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  support, 
to  sustain,  to  uphold ;  to  en- 
dure ;  to  suffer,  to  tolerate,  to 
bear  with;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg., 
to  be  supported  ;  to  be  borne. 

suppose",  prep.,  supposed,  pre- 
tended, supposing,  suppose. 
(See  page  88.)  etre  suppose*  — 
to  be  supposed.  (See  etre.) 
suppose*  que,  conj.  loc. ,  suppose 
that. 

supposer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  suppose, 
to  grant,  to  infer ;  to  con- 
jecture. 

supre*matie,  n.  /.,  supremacy. 

sur,  adj. ,  sure,  certain  ;  safe,  se- 
cure ;  trustworthy  ;  etre  sur  de 
—  to  be  sure  of,  to  depend  on. 
(See  ttre.) 

sur,  prep. ,  upon,  on,  over ;  by  ; 
in  ;  about ;  toward ;  above  ; 
respecting ;  concerning. 

surcroitre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  grow 
out;  [ — ],  v.  a.  irr.,  to  increase 
beyond  measure. 


surexciter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  over- 
excite. 

surface,  n.  f. ,  surface. 

surfaire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  overcharge, 
to  ask  too  much,  to  overrate. 

surnommer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  sur- 
name. 

surpasser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  surpass, 
to  exceed,  to  go  beyond,  to 
excel,  to  outdo  ;  to  surmount. 

surprenant,  adj.,  surprising. 

surprendre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  surprise; 
to  overtake ;  to  deceive ;  to 
catch  ;  to  astonish,  to  amaze. 

surseoir,  v.  a.  n.  irr.,  to  suspend, 
to  delay,  to  respite. 

surtout,  adv., especially;  above  all. 

surveriir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  supervene, 
to  come  unexpectedly,  to  hap- 
pen unexpectedly,  to  come  on. 

survivre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  survive,  to 
outlive;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
live  again. 

sus,  prep.,  upon;  en  sus  de  — 
over  and  above  ;  in  addition. 


T. 


Ta,  poss.  adj.  f.     (See  ton.) 

table,  n.  /. ,  table ;  board ;  in- 
dex. 

tableau,  n.  m.,  painting,  pict- 
ure. 

tablette,  n.  /.,  shelf;  tablet;  table; 
cake. 

tacher,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  try,  to  en- 
deavor, to  strive. 

Tage,  n.  m.,  Tagus. 

tailleur,  n.  m.,  tailor. 

taire,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  say  nothing  of; 
to  pass  over  in  silence  ;  to  con- 
ceal ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  hold 


one's  tongue ;  to  be  silent ;  to 
remain  silent. 

talent,  n.  m.,  talent,  power, 
ability,  attainments;  talented 
person. 

tandis,  adv.,  while;  tandis  que, 
conj.  loc. ,  whilst,  while ;  where- 
as. 

tant,  adv. ,  so  much  ;  so  many  ; 
as  much ;  both ;  to  such  a  de- 
gree ;  so  ;  so  far ;  so  long  ;  as 
far;  as  long;  tant  que,  conj. 
loc. ,  as  long  as. 

tante,  n.  f. ,  aunt. 


204 


VOCABULARY. 


Tarbes,  n.  m.,  Tarbes. 

tard,  adj. ,  adv. ,  late  ;  late  hour  ; 
sur  le  tard  —  rather  late. 

tarder,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  delay,  to  put 
off ;  to  tarry,  to  loiter  ;  (imp.), 
to  be  long. 

tasse,  n.  f. ,  cup. 

te,  per.  pro. ,  thee,  to  thee  ;  you, 
to  you. 

teindre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  dye,  to  tinge, 
to  stain. 

tel,  adj.  m.,  telle,  /.,  tels,  m. 
plu.,  telles,  /.  plu.,  such. 

tellement,  adv. ,  so  much,  so  ;  in 
such  a  way  ;  so  far  ;  tellement 
que,  conj.  loc.,  so  that. 

te"moigner,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  testify ; 
to  bear  witness;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg., 
to  testify,  to  show. 

temps,  n.  m.,  time,  while,  period, 
term;  leisure;  season;  weather; 
(gram.),  tense;  il  fait  beau 
temps  —  it  is  fine  weather  ; 
il  est  temps,  imper.,  it  is 
time. 

tendre,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  stretch,  to 
bend ;  to  strain,  to  set,  to 
pitch  ;  to  lay  ;  to  hold  out ;  to 
hang  (tapestry);  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg., 
to  lead  to,  to  tend,  to  con- 
duce. 

tendresse,  n.  f. ,  tenderness,  fond- 
ness, love. 

te"nebres,  n.  f.  plu.,  darkness, 
night,  gloom. 

tenir,  v.  a.  irr. ,  to  hold,  to  have  ; 
to  contain,  to  possess,  to  oc- 
cupy ;  to  consider,  to  esteem ; 
to  bind ;  to  account ;  to  con- 
sider, to  think  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  irr., 
to  hold  fast ;  to  hang  ;  to  ad- 


here ;  to  take  after  ;  to  keep 
together;  [se — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
cling;  to  remain,  to  keep,  to 
stay  ;  to  consider  one's  self  ;  to 
contain  one's  self  ;  to  refrain  ; 
qu'a  cela  ne  tienne  —  do  not 
let  that  interfere. 

tentation,  n.  f. ,  temptation. 

tenter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  attempt,  to 
try,  to  tempt. 

terme,  n.  m.,  term,  limit,  boun- 
dary ;  time  ;  word,  expression. 

terrasse,  n.  f. ,  terrace. 

terre,  n.  f. ,  land,  ground ;  do- 
minion, territory,  estate  ;  a 
terre  —  to  the  ground  ;  down  ; 
on  the  floor  ;  dans  les  terres  — 
inland. 

terrible,  adj.,  terrible. 

terrifier,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  terrify. 

tes,  poss.  adj.  m.  f.  plu.  (See 
ton.) 

tete,  n.  f.,  head;  tete  a  tete  — 
face  to  face  ;  faites  a  votre 
tete  —  act  according  to  your 
own  idea. 

theatre,  n.  m.,  theatre,  playhouse; 
stage ;  scene. 

theocratic,  n.  f. ,  theocracy. 

Thierry  (Jacques-Nicolat-Augus- 
tin),  historian  (1795-1856). 

Thiers  (Adolphe),  French  states- 
man and  historian ;  the  first 
president  of  the  third  republic 
(1797-1877). 

tien  (le),  poss.  pro.  m.,  (la)  tienne, 
/.,  thine;  (les)  tiens  —  thy, 
your  family,  relations,  friends, 
men,  servants. 

tiers,  adj.  m. ,  tierce,  /. ,  third. 

tigre,  n.  m.,  tiger. 


VOCABULARY. 


205 


tirer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  draw,  to  pull ; 
to  take,  to  take  or  pull  out ;  to 
get,  to  extract ;  to  collect ;  to 
shoot,  to  fire  ;  to  trace  ;  to  re- 
ceive ;  to  reap,  to  recover,  to 
extricate;  to  infer,  to  conclude, 
to  deduce,  to  draw  on,  up, 
down  ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  draw, 
to  make  for,  to  shoot,  to  tend. 

litre,  n.  m.,  title;  right;  standard. 

toi,  per.  pro. ,  thee,  thyself,  thou, 
you,  yourself. 

toil,  n.  m.,  roof. 

Tolede,  n.  /.,  Toledo,  former 
capital  of  Spain. 

tomber,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  fall,  to  fall 
down  ;  to  tumble  ;  to  drop  ;  to 
sink  ;  to  break  in,  to  come,  to 
light,  to  hit  on  ;  to  decay  ;  to 
dwindle,  to  droop,  to  come 
out ;  to  abate,  to  die  away. 

ton,  poss.  adj.  m.,  ta,/.,  tes,  plu. 
m.  /.,  thy. 

torrent  9n.m.,  torrent,  stream ;  flood. 

tort,  n.  m.,  wrong,  harm,  in- 
jury, hurt,  prejudice,  detri- 
ment; avoir  tort — to  be  wrong, 
to  be  in  the  wrong. 

touchant,  adj.,  touching,  moving, 
affecting. 

toucher,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  touch,  to 
handle,  to  feel,  to  finger ;  to 
receive;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to 
touch,  to  reach ;  to  play ;  to 
draw  near ;  to  be  affected,  to 
be  moved  ;  to  drive. 

toujours,  adv.,  always,  forever, 
ever,  evermore ;  still. 

tour,  n.  f. ,  tower ;  castle. 

tour,  n.  m. ,  turn,  winding ;  revo- 
tion  ;  circuit ;  trick ;  feat ;  or- 


der ;  tour,  trip ;  tour  a  tour  — 

by  turns. 

Touraine,  n.  /.,  a  province  of 
ancient  France ;  capital,  Tours. 

tournoi,  n.  m.,  tournament. 

tournure,  n.  /.,  turn;  direction, 
course  ;  shape,  figure  ;  look  ; 
curl,  bustle. 

tout,  n.  m.,  whole,  all;  every  one; 
everything. 

tout,  indef.  adj.  m.,  toute,  /., 
tous,  m.  plu.,  toutes,  /.  plu., 
all ;  every;  any  ;  whole;  each; 
tout  le  monde  —  all  the  world, 
everybody;  tout,  adv.,  quite, en- 
tirely ;  tout  a  coup  —  suddenly. 

toutefois,  adv.,  yet,  nevertheless, 
however,  still. 

tracer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  draw,  to 
trace,  to  draw  out,  to  trace  out, 
to  make  out,  to  sketch ;  to  lay 
out;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  spread 
out  (roots);  to  run  out. 

traduire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  translate, 
to  construe,  to  interpret,  to 
render;  (jur.),  to  remove,  to 
arraign,  to  indict. 

trainer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  draw,  drag, 
drag  along,  trail ;  to  put  off,  to 
spin  out,  to  draw  out,  to  pro- 
tract, to  drawl ;  [ — ],  'v.  n.  reg., 
to  trail,  drag,  lag  ;  to  droop  ;  to 
lie  about ;  to  languish ;  to  be 
found;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
crawl,  to  creep  along ;  to  lag ; 
to  drag  one's  self  along. 

traire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  milk. 

trailer,  v.  a.  n.  reg. ,  to  treat ;  to 
handle  ;  to  use,  to  behave ;  to 
negociate,  to  make  a  treaty  ;  to 
entertain  ;  to  execute,  to  do. 


206 


VOCABULARY. 


traitre,  adj.,  treacherous. 

Trajan,  n.  m.,  Trajan,  emperor 
of  Rome  (53-117). 

tranquille,  adj.,  tranquil,  placid. 

transcrire,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  tran- 
scribe, to  copy. 

transformer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  trans- 
form. 

transitif,  adj.,  transitive. 

transmettre,  v.  a.  irr.,  transmit, 
to  convey  ;  to  forward  ;  to  send 
on ;  to  transfer,  to  make  over. 

travail,  n.  m.,  labor,  work,  piece 
of  work ;  employment,  study  ; 
travail ;  travaux  —  works. 

travailler,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  work ;  to 
labor ;  to  ferment ;  to  study  ; 
to  endeavor;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg.,  to 
work,  to  work  at ;  to  fashion  ; 
to  cultivate,  to  exercise,  to 
overwork,  to  torment. 

travers,  n.  m.,  breadth;  whim, 
caprice,  oddity,  eccentricity ; 
a  travers  —  athwart,  through, 
across. 

traverser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  cross,  to 
go  or  pass  over ;  to  travel 
through ;  to  traverse,  to  get 
over  ;  to  penetrate  ;  to  go  ;  to 
disturb,  to  vex. 

treize,  adj.,  thirteen. 

treizieme,  adj.,  thirteenth. 

tremblant,  adj.,  trembling,  quak- 
ing, tremulous,  shivering,  quiv- 
ering. 

trembler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  tremble, 
to  shake,  to  shiver ;  to  quake, 
to  fear. 

trente,  adj.,  thirty. 

trente-deux,  adj.,  thirty-two. 

trente  et  un,  adj.,  thirty-one. 


trentieme,  adj.,  thirtieth. 

tres,  adv.,  very. 

tressaillir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  start,  to 
thrill,  to  leap,  to  tremble. 

tribun,  n.  m.,  tribune. 

triompher,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  triumph. 

triste,  adj. ,  sorrowful,  sad  ;  mel- 
ancholy ;  dull ;  dark,  gloomy  ; 
poor,  sorry. 

tristement,  adv.,  sadly,  sorrow- 
fully. 

tristesse,  n.  /.,  sadness,  melan- 
choly, dreariness,  dulness. 

trois,  adj.,  three. 

troisieme,  adj.,  third. 

tromper,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  deceive,  to 
cheat,  to  delude,  to  beguile,  to 
take  in ;  to  impose  on ;  to 
elude  ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  be 
mistaken,  to  mistake,  to  make 
a  mistake,  to  deceive  one's  self, 
to  be  deceived. 

trompeur,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  de- 
ceiver, cheat ;  betrayer  ;  de- 
ceitful, delusive,  beguiling, 
cheating,  false,  deceptive. 

tr6ne,  n.  m.,  throne. 

trop,  adv.,  too  much,  too  many, 
too,  over. 

troubler,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  trouble  ;  to 
disturb,  to  disorder,  to  con- 
found, to  agitate,  to  perplex, 
to  disconcert ;  to  interrupt ;  to 
destroy  the  harmony  of ;  to 
ruffle,  to  annoy  ;  to  confuse  ;  to 
to  dim,  to  make  muddy,  thick. 

troupe,  n.  /.,  troop,  band,  com- 
pany, crew,  set ;  crowd  ;  flock. 

trouver,  v.  a.  reg. ,  to  find,  to  find 
out ;  to  discover,  to  detect ;  to 
meet  with,  to  come  across ;  to 


VOCABULARY. 


207 


like,  to  think,  to  judge ;  to 
dream;  [se — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to 
find  one's  self,  to  be  present, 
to  be,  to  be  by  ;  to  feel ;  to  hap- 
pen, to  chance. 

truelle,  n.  /.,  trowel ;  mettre  la 
main  a  la  truelle  —  to  set  to 
work. 

tu,  per.  pro.,  thou,  you. 


tuer,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  kill. 

Tuileries,  n.  /.,  Tuileries  (a  pal- 
ace in  Paris). 

Turenne  (Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Au- 
vergne,  Vicomte  de),  Marshal 
of  France.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  warriors  of  his  age 
(1611-1675). 

Tyrol,  n.  m.,  Tyrol. 


U. 


Un,  n.  m.,  one,  unit ;  un  a  un  — 

one  by  one. 
un,  pro.  m.,  une,  /.,  one  ;  Pun  ou 

Pautre  —  either,  the  one  or  the 

other  ;  Pun  et  Pautre  —  both  ; 

ni  Pun  ni  Pautre  —  neither  the 

one  nor  the  other,  neither. 
un,  adj.,  m.,  une,/.,  one. 
un,  indef.  art.  m. ,  une,  /. ,  -a,  an, 

any. 
uni,  adj. ,  united ;  smooth,  even, 

level;  plain,  simple,  unaffected; 

uniform. 


uniment,  adv.,  plainly,  simply. 

union,  n.  /.,  union,  conjunction  ; 
concord,  agreement,  harmony. 

unir,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  unite,  to  join, 
to  combine;  to  smooth,  to  level, 
to  plane  ;  to  pair. 

univers,  n.  m.,  universe. 

usage,  n.  m.,  custom,  practice, 
use,  usage  ;  wear  (of  clothes). 

use",  adj.,  worn  out  threadbare. 

utile,  adj.,  useful,  beneficial,  pro- 
fitable, serviceable,  advanta- 
geous. 


Vacance,  n.  /.,  vacancy;  plu., 
vacation,  holidays. 

vache,  n.  /.,  cow. 

vaciller,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  waver,  to 
vacillate,  to  be  inconstant. 

vaillance,  n.  f.,  valiance,  valor, 
courage,  bravery. 

vaillant,  adj.,  valiant,  valorous, 
brave,  courageous. 

vain,  adj.,  vain,  foolish,  con- 
ceited, trifling ;  fruitless,  use- 
less ;  en  vain  —  in  vain,  f  ruit- 


vaincre,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  vanquish, 
to  conquer,  to  overcome ;    to 


surpass,  to  excel;  to  get  the 
better  of;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to 
conquer  one's  self,  to  conquer 
one's  passions. 

vainement,  adv.,  vainly,  in  vain, 
to  no  purpose. 

vaisseau,  n.  m.,  ship,  vessel. 

vallon,  n.  m.,  valley. 

valoir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  be  worth,  to 
be  as  good  as,  to  be  equal  to ; 
to  yield,  to  bring;  valoir  mieux 
—  to  be  better,  preferable. 

vanite",  n.  f. ,  vanity. 

vaniteux,  adj.,  absurdly  vain, 
vain. 


208 


VOCABULARY. 


vanter,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  vaunt,  to 
praise,  to  extol ;  [se  — ],  v.  r. 
reg.,  to  vaunt,  to  boast,  to  brag. 

v6h6mence,  n.  f. ,  vehemence,  im- 
petuosity. 

veloute",  adj.,  velvet,  velvety;  vel- 
vet-like. 

vendre,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  sell,  to 
vend,  to  sell  out ;  to  betray  ; 
[se  — ],  v.  r.  reg.,  to  sell  one's 
self  ;  to  sell,  to  go  off  (things). 

venger,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  revenge,  to 
avenge,  to  resent. 

vengeur,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  avenger, 
revengeful,  avenging. 

venir,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  coine,  to  be 
coming,  to  arrive  ;  to  chance, 
to  happen  ;  to  grow ;  to  issue  ; 
to  run,  to  flow ;  s'en  venir  — 
to  come,  to  be  coining,  etc. 

Venise,  n.  f. ,  Venice. 

vent,  n.  m. ,  wind,  gale ;  il  fait 
du  vent  —  it  is  windy. 

verbe,  n.  m.,  verb  ;  voice  ;  (theoL), 
the  word. 

verdoyant,  adj. ,  verdant,  green. 

verdure,  n.  /.,  verdure,  green, 
greenness. 

verger,  n.  m.,  orchard. 

vergeure,  n.  /.,  wire-mark,  (on 
paper). 

ve'ritablement,  adv. ,  truly,  really, 
in  reality,  indeed,  in  truth. 

ve*rit6,  n.  /.,  truth. 

vers,  n.  m.,  verse,  poetry. 

vers,  prep.,  towards,  about,  to. 

Versailles,  n.  m.,  a  magnificent 
palace  near  Paris. 

vert,  adj.,  green. 

vertu,  n.  f.,  virtue;  property, 
faculty. 


verve,  n.  f.,  warmth,  heat  of 
fancy,  animation,  liveliness ; 
(I.  u.),  fancy,  whim,  crotchet. 

vetir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  clothe,  to  ar- 
ray ;  [se  — ],  v.  r.  irr.,  to  dress 
one's  self. 

veuf,  n.  m.,  widower;  [ — ],  adj., 
widowed,  deprived  of,  wanting. 

vice,  n.  m.,  vice,  fault,  blemish, 
defect,  imperfection. 

victoire,  n.  f. ,  victory,  Victoria. 

vie,  n.  f. ,  life  ;  living ;  way  of 
living;  food,  subsistence;  spirit; 
animation  ;  a  la  vie,  a  la  mort 
—  in  life  and  death. 

vieillard,  n.  m.,  old  man;  aged. 

vieillir,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  grow  old ; 
to  get  old  ;  to  look  old  ;  to  be- 
come obsolete  ;  [ — ],  v.  a.  reg., 
to  make  old  ;  to  make  look  old. 

vieux,  vieil,  adj.  m.,  vieille,  /., 
old  ;  aged  ;  ancient,  venerable. 

vif,  adj.  m.,  vive,  /.,  alive,  live, 
living ;  quick ;  lively,  brisk, 
sprightly,  animated,  fiery,  ar- 
dent, eager,  hasty,  keen,  alert, 
nimble  ;  sharp,  violent ;  vivid, 
bright  (of  color). 

vigne,  n.  f. ,  vine  ;  vineyard. 

Vigny  (Alfred,  Comte  de),  poet 
and  author  of  "Cinq-Mars"  and 
other  romances  (1799-1863). 

vil,  adj.,  vile,  base,  mean,  low, 
wretched  ;  a  vil  prix  —  very 
cheap. 

village,  n.  m.,  village. 

villageois,  n.  m.,  villager. 

ville,  n.  f. ,  town,  city. 

vingt,  adj.,  twenty. 

vingt-cinquieme,  adj.,  twenty- 
fifth. 


VOCABULARY. 


209 


vingt-deux,  adj.,  twenty-two. 

vingt- deuxieme,  adj.,  twenty- 
second. 

vingt  et  un,  adj.,  twenty-one. 

vingt  et  unieme,  adj.,  twenty- 
first. 

vingt-huitieme,  adj.,  twenty- 
eighth. 

vingtieme,  adj.,  twentieth. 

vingt-neuvieme,  adj. ,  twenty- 
ninth. 

vingt-quatrieme,  adj. ,  twenty- 
fourth. 

vingt-septieme,  adj. ,  twenty- 
seventh. 

vingt-troisieme,  adj.,  twenty- 
third. 

violence,  n.  f. ,  violence,  force. 

violon,  n.  m.,  violin. 

visage,  n.  m. ,  visage,  face  ;  coun- 
tenance, aspect,  look,  air. 

viser,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  aim  at,  to 
take  aim ;  to  sign  (passports, 
etc.) ;  [ — ],  v.  n.  reg.,  to  aim  ; 
to  aspire,  to  endeavor. 

visible,  adj.,  visible,  evident, 
manifest,  obvious. 

visile,  n.  f.,  visit,  call. 

visiter,  v.  a.  n.  reg.,  to  visit ;  to 
make  a  visit,  a  visitation ;  to 
search,  to  examine,  to  inspect, 
to  look. 

vite,  adv.,  quickly,  quick,  fast, 
speedily;  rapidly,  expeditiously. 

vivant,  adj. ,  living,  alive  ;  quick. 

vivre,  v.  n.  irr.,  to  live,  to  be 
living,  to  be  alive ;  to  subsist, 
to  be  maintained  ;  vive  le  roi ! 
—  long  Jive  the  king ! 

vceu,  n.  m.,  vow,  votive  offering; 
wish,  desire. 


void,  prep. ,  here  is,  see  here,  be- 
hold. 

voila,  prep.,  see  there,  behold, 
that  is,  those  are,  there  is, 
there  are. 

voile,  n.  f. ,  sail. 

voir,  v.  a.  n.  irr. ,  to  see  ;  to  look 
at,  to  behold,  to  view ;  to  in- 
spect ;  to  superintend  ; .  to  fre- 
quent the  society  of. 

voiture,  n.  f. ,  carriage  ;  coach  ; 
conveyance,  load  ;  fare  ;  mon- 
ter  en  voiture  —  to  step  into  a 
carriage. 

voix,  n.  f.,  voice  ;  vote  ;  a  haute 
voix  —  in  a  loud  voice,  aloud. 

vol,  n.  m. ,  theft ;  stealing ;  rob- 
bery ;  flight. 

voler,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  fly,  to  fly 
about,  to  take  wings. 

voler,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  steal,  to  rob ; 
to  plunder. 

voleur,  n.  m.,  thief,  robber. 

volontaire,  n.  m.,  volunteer. 

volont£,  n.  f. ,  will ;  plu. ,  whims, 
fancies,  caprices. 

volontiers,  adv. ,  willingly,  readily. 

Voltaire  (Arouet  de),  French 
poet,  philosopher,  and  historian 
(1694-1778). 

voltiger,  v.  n.  reg.,  to  flutter,  to  flit ; 
to  hover  ;  to  vault ;  to  tumble. 

volume,  n.  m.,  volume ;  size, 
mass,  compass. 

voluptueusement,  adv.,  volup- 
tuously. 

votre,  poss.  adj.  m.  f.,  vos,  plu., 
m.,/.,  your. 

votre  (le),  poss.  pro.  m.,  (la) 
v6tre,  /.,  (les)  v6tres,  plu.  m. 
/.,  yours. 


210 


VOCABULARY. 


vouer,  v.  a.  reg.,  to  vow,  to  de- 
vote, to  dedicate,  to  conse- 
crate. 

vouloir,  v.  a.  irr.,  to  will,  to 
wish,  to  be  willing,  to  be 
pleased,  to  intend,  to  require  ; 
to  consent,  to  admit,  to  want ; 
Dieu  le  veuille  —  may  God  so 
will  it,  or  God  grant  it !  veuil- 
lez  me  dire  —  please  or  pray 
tell  me.  ( Veuillez,  see  P.  II. , 
page  75.) 

vous,  per.  pro.,  you,  ye,  to  you. 

voyage,  n.  m.,  journey. 

voyager,  v.  n.  reg. ,  to  travel. 


voyageur,  n.  m.,  traveller;  pas- 
senger. 

vrai,  n.  m.,  truth  ;  a  dire  vrai  — 
to  tell  the  truth,  really ;  [ — ], 
adj.,  true,  real,  right,  genuine. 

vraiment,  adv.,  truly,  really. 

vraisemblable,  adj.,  likely,  proba- 
ble. 

vu,  prep.,  seeing,  considering; 
vu  que,  conj.  loc.,  seeing,  that, 
since. 

vue,  n.  /.,  sight,  view. 

vulgaire,  n.  m.  and  adj.,  vulgar, 
common  people  ;  vulgar,  com- 
mon. 


Whist,  n.  m.,  whist. 
Wurtemberg,  n.  m.,  a  kingdom 

in   Germany,   between   Baden 

and  Bavaria. 

Xerxes,  n.  m.,  name  of  several 
kings  of  the  Persians. 


W,    X,    Y. 

Y,  per.  pro. ,  by  it,  by  them ;  for 
it,  for  them  ;  in  it,  in  them  ; 
at  it,  at  them  ;  to  him,  to  her, 
to  it,  to  them ;  of  him,  of  her, 
of  it,  of  them;  [ — ],  adv.,  there. 

y  avoir.     (See  avoir.) 

yeux,  n.  m.  plu.,  eyes.    (See  ce.il.} 


ENGLISH-FRENCH   VOCABULARY. 


Abandon,  v.,  abandonner. 

able,  adj. ,  capable ;   to  be  —  to, 

pouvoir. 
according    as,    conj.,    a    mesure 

que  ;  selon  que. 
according  to,  prep.,  selon;    sui- 

vant ;  conform  ^ment  a. 
accused,  n.,  accuse",  ra. 
acquaintance,    connaissance,   /. ; 

to  make  —  with  any  one,  faire 

connaissance  avec  quelqu'un. 
across,  adv. ,  a  travers ;  par. 

(across  (over),  prep.,  sur. 
action,  action,  /. 

active,  adj. ,  actif .  ( Voir  5,  page 
12.) 

activity,  activity,  /. 

add,  v.,  ajouter ;  s'ajouter. 

admiration,  admiration,  /. 

admire,  v.,  admirer. 

admit,  v.,  admettre,  irr. 

adore,  v.,  adorer. 

advance,  v.,  avancer. 

adventure,  aventure,  /. 

advice,  conseil,  m.,  avis,  m. 

Africa,  Afrique,  /. 

after,  prep. ,  apres.     . 

again,  adv.,  encore. 

age,  n.,  §,ge,  m. ;  siecle,  m. ;  in 
every  — ,  de  tout  temps ;  old 
— ,  vieux  jours,  m.  plu. 


aged,  n.,  vieillard,  m. 

agile,  adj.,  agile. 

agree,  v.,  s'accorder;    convenir, 

irr.;  etre  d' accord. 
air,  n.,  air,  m.  , 
all,  adj.,  tout.     (Voir  pages  17- 

18.) 

allegory,  allegoric,  /. 
allurement,  entrainement,  m. 
almost,  adv.,  presque. 
alone,  adj.,  seul. 
also,  conj.,  aussi. 
although,  conj.,  quoique. 
always,  adv.,  toujours. 
America,  Ame'rique,  /. 
American,   adj.,   ame'ricam ;    n., 

Ame'ricam. 

amiable,  adj.,  aimable. 
amid,  or  amidst,  prep.,  au  milieu 

de. 
among,  or  amongst,  prep. ,  entre, 

parmi ;  avec,  au  milieu  de. 
amuse,  v.,  amuser;  to  —  one's 

self,  s' amuser. 
amusement,  amusement,  m. 
anchor,  n.,  ancre,/. 
ancient,  n.,  ancien,  m. 
animal,    animal,    m.,    animaux, 

plu.;  bete,/. 
animate,  v.,  s'animer. 
Annetta,  Annette,  /. 


212 


VOCABULARY. 


another,   adj. ,   un    autre ;    from 

one  — ,  1'un  de  P  autre. 
ant,  fourmi,  /. 
any,  adj. ,  quelque  ;   tout,  du,  de 

la,  de  1%  des;  de;  en;  — one, 

qui  que  ce  soit ;  quelqu'un. 
appear,  v. ,  paraitre,  irr. ;  to  seem, 

avoir  Pair. 

application,  application,  /. 
appreciate,  v. ,  estimer,  appre"cier. 
approach,  v.,  s'approcher. 
architect,  architecte,  m. 
architecture,  architecture,  /. 
ardent,  adj.,  ardent, 
ardor,  ardeur,  /.  • 
aristocracy,  aristocratic,  /. 
arm,  bras,  m. 
arms,  armes,  /.  plu. 
around,  prep. ,  autour  de. 
arrive,  v.,  arriver. 
art,  n.,  art,  m. 
artist,  artiste,  m. 


as,  conj. ,  comme,  ainsi  que,  selon 
que,  suivant  que  ;  —  much  — , 
autant  que ;  —  ...  — ,  aussi 
.  .  .  que. 

ashy,  adj.,  cendre\ 

ask,  v.  demander. 

aspect,  aspect,  m. 

assail,  v.,  assie'ger.  (Yoir  page 
49.) 

assemble,  v.,  rassembler. 

astonish,  v. ,  e'tonner ;   s'  e'tonner. 

atom,  atome,  m. 

attack,  n.  attaque,  /. 

attack,  v.,  attaquer. 

attention,  attention,  /. 

audacious,  adj.,  audacieux.  (Voir 
page  12.) 

Augustus,  Augustin,  m. 

aunt,  tante,  /. 

austere,  adj.,  austere. 

author,  auteur,  m. 

autumn,  automne,  m. 


B. 


Baffle,  v.,  d^jouer. 

baggage,  bagage,  m. 

bank,  n. ,  rive,  /. 

bar,  n.,  e'cueil,  m. 

barber,  barbier,  m. 

battalion,  bataillon,  m. 

Bayonne,  Bayonne,  /. 

be,  v.,  etre. 

bear  (away,  carry  away),  v.,  em- 
porter. 

beat,  v. ,  battre. 

Beaumarchais.  (Voir  le  vocabu- 
laire  frangais-anglais.) 

beautiful,  adj.,  beau.  (Voir  2, 
page  10.) 

beauty,  n. ,  beaute',  /. 

because,  conj.,  parce  que. 


become,  v.,  devenir,  irr. 

bee,  abeille, /. 

before,    prep.,    (place),    devant ; 

(time),  avant. 
before,  conj.,  avant  que. 
before,  adv.,  auparavant. 
begin,  v.,  commencer. 
beginning,  commencement,  m. 
being,  n.,  etre,  m. 
believe,  v.,  croire,  irr. 
bell,  cloche,  /. 
belong,  v. ,  appartenir,  irr. 
beloved,  adj.,  Men-aime";  che'ri. 
benefit,  n.,  bienfait,  m. ;  service, 

m. ;  avantage,  m. 
better,  adj. ,  meilleur.    (Voir  page 

14.) 


VOCABULARY. 


213 


better,  adv.,  mieux;  to  be  — , 
valoir  mieux. 

between,  prep. ,  entre. 

beyond,  prep.,  au  dela  de  ;  outre; 
hors  de. 

bind,  v.,  lier. 

bird,  oiseau,  m. 

bitter,  adj.,  amer. 

black,  adj.,  noir. 

bleat,  v.  beler. 

bleating,  n.,  belement,  m. 

blood,  sang,  m. 

blossom,  n. ,  fleur,  /. 

blue,  adj.,  bleu. 

book,  livre,  m. 

Bordeaux,  Bordeaux,  m. 

border,  n.,  bord,  m. ;  the  sea- 
shore, le  bord  de  la  mer. 

borrow,  v.,  emprunter. 

both,  adj.,  1'un  et  Pautre;  tous 
deux. 

branch,  n. ,  branche,  /. 


breathe,  v.,  respirer. 

bridge,  pont,  m. 

bring,  v. ,  apporter  ;   amener  ;   to 

—  forth j,  produire ;   to  —  out, 

faire  paraitre. 
Brittany,  Bretagne,  /. 
broad,  adj.,  large,  grand, 
brook,  ruisseau,  m. 
broom  (plant),  genet,  m. 
brown,  adj.,  brun. 
Buff  on.  (Voir  le  vocabulaire  fran- 

Qais-anglais.) 
build,  v.,  batir. 
building,  n. ,  monument,  m. ;  bati- 

ment. 

Burgundy,  Bourgogne,  /. 
burn,  v.,  bruler. 
bury,  v.,  ensevelir. 
bustling,  adj.,  bruyant. 
but,  conj.,  mais. 
butterfly,  papillon,  m. 
by,  prep. ,  par  ;  de. 


C. 


Calamity,  calamity,  /. 

call,  v.,  appeler.    (Voir  page  49.) 

calm,  adj.,  calme. 

camp,  n.,  camp,  m. 

can,  v.,  pouvoir,  irr. 

cannon,  canon,  m. 

capital,  capitale,  /. 

carefully,    adv. ,    attentivemeiit ; 

soigneusement. 
carriage,  voiture,  /. 
carry,  v.,  porter. 
carry  (away),  v.,  emporter. 
castle,  chateau,  m. 
catch,  v.,  attraper;  prendre;  saisir. 
cattle,  boeufs,  m.  plu. 
cause,  v.  causer. 
celebrate,  v.,  celeljrer. 


celebrated,  adj.,  celebre. 
century,  siecle,  m. 
certain,  adj.,  certain, 
chair,  chaise,  /. 
change,  n. ,  monnaie,  /. 
change,  v.  changer. 
character,  caractere,  m. 
chariot,  char,  m. 
charm,  n.,  charme,  m. 
charming,  adj.,  charmant. 
chase,  n.,  chasse, /. 
Chateaubriand.      (Voir  le   voca- 
bulaire fran^ais-anglais.) 
cheerful,  adj.,  joyeux,  gai. 
cherry-tree,  cerisier,  m. 
child,  enfant,  m. 
childhood,  enfance,  /. 


214 


VOCABULARY. 


children,  enfants,  in.  plu. 
choose,  v.,  choisir,  irr. 
church,  e'glise,  /. 
circumstance,  circonstance,  /. 
city,  ville,  /. 
citizen,  citoyen,  m. 
civilization,  civilisation,  /. 
clash,  bruit,  m. 
clearly,  adv.,  clair. 
clever,  adj.,  habile, 
cleverness,  adresse,  /. 
climb,  v.,  monter. 
cloud,  image,  m. 
coast,  n. ,  cote,  /. 
coat,  n.,  habit,  m. 
combat,  combat,  m. 
come,  v. ,  venir,  irr. ;  arriver. 
command,  n.,  comrnaiidement,  m. 
commotion,  bruit,  m. 
communicate,  v.,  communiquer. 
companion,  compagnon,  m. 
compared,  adj.,  compare";  —  with, 

en  comparaison  de. 
complain,  v.,  se  plaindre,  irr. 
completely,  adv.,  completement. 
composition,  composition,  /. 
comrade,  camarade,  m. 
conceal,  v. ,  cacher ;  se  cacher. 
conceive,  v.,  concevoir. 
conception,  conception,  /. 
conquer,  v.,  vaincre,  irr. 
conqueror,  conque'rant,  m. 
conquest,  conquete,  /. 
conscience,  conscience,  /. 
consolation,  consolation,  /. 


console,  v.,  consoler, 
contemplate,  v.,  contempler. 
cordial,  adj.,  cordial, 
correct,  v.,  corriger. 
correspond,  v.,  correspondre. 
corridor,   corridor,   m. ;    through 

the  — s  of  the  years,  tout  au- 

tour  des  anne'es. 
costume,  costume,  m.,  habit,  m. 
counsel,  n.,  conseil,  m. 
country,  pays,  m. ;   (region),  con- 

tr£e,  /.;  (native  country),  patrie, 

/. ;    (opposed  to  the  city),  cam- 

pagne,  /. 
country-people,  campagnards,  m.; 

plu.,(in  distinction  from  the  city), 
gens  de  province;  provinciaux,  m. 
courage,  courage,  m. ,  audace,  /. 
courageous,      adj. ,     courageux. 

(Voir  page  12.) 
courageously,    adv. ,   courageuse- 

ment,  avec  courage, 
course,  cours,  m. 
Cousin.       (Voir    le    vocabulaire 

f  rariQais-anglais. ) 
cover,  v.,  couvrir,  irr. 
cow,  vache,  /. 
creation,  creation,  /. 
crime,  crime,  m, 
cripple,  estropie',  m. 
crowd,  n. ,  f  oule,  /. 
cruel,  adj.,  cruel.    (Voir  page  10.) 
cry,  v.,  pleurer. 
culprit,  coupable,  m. 
curious,  adj.,  curieux.  (Voir  p.  12.) 


D. 


Danger,  danger,  m. 
daughter,  fille,  /. 
Davout.       (Voir    le 
f  rangais-anglais. ) 


vocabulaire 


day,  jour,  m.,  journe'e,  /. ;   from 
—  to  — ,  de  journe'e  en  journe'e. 
dear,  adj.,  cher. 
death,  n.,  mort, /. 


VOCABULARY. 


215 


decide,   v.,   decider,   se  decider; 

resoudre,  irr. 
decline,  n.,  decrepitude. 
deep,  adj.,  profond. 
delay,  n.,  delai,  m. 
delightful,  adj.,  charmant,  deii- 

cieux. 

demand,  v.,  demander. 
depart,  v.,  partir,  irr. 
department,  departement,  m. 
departure,  depart,  m. 
depend,  v.,  dependre. 
depth,  fond,  m. ;  profondeur,  /. 
describe,  v.,  decrire. 
deserve,  v.,  meriter. 
desire,  w.,  desir,  m.,  voeu,  ?n. 
desire,  v. ,  desirer  ;  vouloir,  irr. 
desolation,  desolation,  /. 
despise,  v.,  mepriser. 
destiny,  destinee,  /. 
detail,  detail,  m. 
determine,  v.,  resoudre,  irr. 
devastation,  devastation,  /. 
development,  developpement,  m. 
devote,  v.,  se  d&vouer. 
devotion,  devouement,  m. 
difficult,  adj.,  difficile. 


disagreeable,  adj.,  desagreable. 
discussion,  discussion,  /. 
disobey,  v.,  desobeir. 
disorder,  desordre,  m. 
distance,  distance,  /. 
divine,  adj.,  divin. 
division,  division,  /. ;  partie,  /. 
do,  v.,  faire,  irr. ;  to  —  evil,  faire 

le  mal. 

docile,  adj.,  docile. 
doctrine,  doctrine,  /. 
doleful,  adj.,  lamentable. 
domain,  domaine,  m. 
dome,  d6me,  m. 
domesticate,  v.,  apprivoiser. 
door,  porte,  /. 
Doubs,  Doubs,  m. 
doubt,  v.,  douter. 
dragoon,  dragon,  m. 
dress,  v.,  s'habiller. 
drown,   v.,   noyer;    (to  drown  a 

sound),  couvrir,  irr. 
duck,  canard,  m. 
during,  prep.,  pendant, 
duty,  devoir,  m. 
dwelling,  n.,  habitation,  /.,  de- 

meure,  /. 


Each,  adj.,  chaque. 
earth,  terre,  /. 
easy,  adj.,  facile. 
eloquent,  adj.,  eloquent. 
embellish,  v.,  embellir. 
emotion,  emotion,  /.,  sentiment, 

m. 

employment,  emploi,  m. 
enchant,  v.,  enchanter, 
end,  n.,  fin,/. 
endeavor,  v.,  tacher. 
energetic,  adj.,  energique. 


English,   n.,    Anglais,   m.;   adj., 

anglais,  m. 
enjoy,  v.,  jouir. 
enlighten,  v.,  eclairer. 
enough,  adv.,  assez. 
enter,  v.,  entrer. 
enthusiasm,  enthousiasme,  m. 
epoch,  epoque,  /. 
equality,  egalite,  /. 
erect,  v.,  dresser, 
esteem,  n.,  estime, /. 
esteem,  v.,  estimer. 


216 


VOCABULARY. 


eternal,   adj. ,    kernel ;    adv. ,   a 

jamais. 

Europe,  Europe,  /. 
even,  adv.,  meme. 
event,  e'venement,  m. 
ever,  adv.,  jamais. 
every,  adj.,  tout,  m.   (voir  page 

17);   chaque ;  — body,  tout  le 

monde;  chacun. 

evil,  n. ,  mal,  m. ;   adj. ,  mechant. 
example,  exemple,  m. 
excite,  v.,  exciter. 


excitement,  excitation,  /. 
exclaim,  v.,  s' e'crier. 
excuse,  v.,  excuser,  s'excuser. 
exercise,  n.,  exercice,  m. 
exhaust,  v.,  e'puiser. 
exist,  v.,  exister. 
existence,  existence,  /. ,  vie,  /. 
expect,  v.,  attendre. 
explain,  v.,  expliquer. 
express,  v.,  exprimer. 
extend,  v.,  etendre,  s'e'tendre. 
eye,  ceil,  m.  •  yeux,  plu. 


F. 


Face,  v.,  affronter. 

fair,  adj.,  blond. 

faithful,  adj.,  fidele. 

faithfully,  adv.,  fidelement. 

fall,  v.,  toinber. 

farm-house,  ferme,  /. 

fast,  adv.,  vite. 

father,  pere,  m. 

fault,  d£faut,  m. 

fear,  n.,  crainte,  /.;   peur,  /.;  to 

be  afraid,  avoir  peur. 
fear,  v.,  craindre,  irr. 
fearful,  adj.,  redoutable. 
feeble,  adj.,  faible. 
feed,  v.,  paitre,  irr. 
feel,    v. ,    toucher ;     sentir,    irr. , 

e'prouver. 
felicity,  fe'licite',  /. 
fertile,  adj.,  fe*cond. 
Feuillet  (Octave).     (Voir  le  voca- 

bulaire  franc,  ais-anglais.) 
few,  adj.,  peu  de. 
fidelity,  fidelite". 
field,  champ,  m. 
fierce,  adj.,  fier. 
fight,  v.,  combattre. 
figure,  tournure,  /. 


file,  file,  /. 

find,  v.,  trouver ;  to  —  one's  self, 

se  trouver, 
fir,  sapin,  m. 
fire,  n.,  feu,  m. 
first,    adj.,    premier.      (Voir    3, 

page  11.) 

flaming,  adj.,  flamboyant. 
flank,  n.,  flanc,  m. 
flash,   n.,  dclat,  m. ;   —  of  wit, 

saillie,  /. 
flee,  v.,  fuir,  irr.-  —  away,  s'en- 

fuir,  irr. 

Florence,  Florence,  /. 
Florentine,    adj.,    florentin,    n., 

Florentin. 
flourish,  v.,  fleurir.     (Voir  page 

in.) 

flourishing,  adj.,  florissant. 
flow,  v.,  couler. 
flower,  fleur,  /. 
flowery,  adj.,  fleuri. 
follow,  v.,  suivre,  irr. 
fool,  n.,  insens^,  m.,  fou,  m. 
for,  prep. ,  pour,  par,  de,  a. 
forbid,    v.,    interdire,     irr.,    d£- 
fendre. 


VOCABULARY. 


217 


foresee,  v.,  pre>oir,  irr. 

forest,  f  oret,  /. 

forget,  v.,  oublier. 

form,  n.,  forme,  /. 

form,  v.  former. 

former,  adj.,  ancien. 

formerly,  adv.,  autrefois. 

fort,  fort,  m. 

fourth,   adj.,   quatrieme.      (Voir 

page  15.) 

France,  France,  /. 
Franche-Comte*.     (Voir  le  voca- 

bulaire  frangais-anglais. ) 
Francis,  Francois,  m. 


free,  adj.,  libre. 

freedom,  liberty  /. ;  franchise,  /. 

French,  adj. ,  f rancais  ;   n. ,  Fran- 

Qais,  m. 

Frenchman,  n.,  Fran^ais,  m. 
friend,  ami,  m. 
frighten,  v.,  effrayer. 
full,  adj.,  plein. 
furious,  adj.,  furieux.  (Voir  page 

12.) 

furnish,  v.,  fournir. 
furniture,  meubles,  m.  plu. 
future,  n. ,  avenir,  m. 


G. 


Gain,  v.,  gagner. 

Galswinthe.    (Voir  le  vocabulaire 

f  rangais-anglais. ) 
garden,  jardin,  m. 
gate,  porte,  /. 
gather    (together),     v.,     rassem- 

bler. 

Gaul  (country),  Gaule,  /. 
Gaul  (person),  Gaulois,  m. 
gay,  adj.,  gai. 
gaze,  n.,  regard,  m. 
general,  n.,  ge'ne'ral,  m. •    in  — , 

en  ge'ne'ral. 
generally,  adv.,  en  ge'ne'ral,  ordi- 

nairement,  ge'ne'ralement. 
genius,  genie,  m. 
gentle,  adj.,  doux.     (Voir  page 

12.) 

George,  George,  m. 
Germany,  Allemagne,  /. 
gift,  don,  m. 
give,  v.,  donner. 
glad,  adj.,  heureux.     (Voir  page 

12.) 
glance,  n.,  regard,  m. 


glimpse,  to  have  a  —  of,  v.,  en- 

trevoir,  irr. 

gloomy,  adj. ,  triste  ;  noir. 
glory,  gloire,  /. 
go,  v.,  aller,  irr. 
God,  Dieu,  m. 
golden,  adj.,  dore\ 
good,    adj.,    bon.       (Voir    page 

10.) 

good-bye,  adv.,  adieu, 
goods,  biens,  m.  plu. 
goose,  oie,  /. 
gorge,  n.,  gorge./. 
Goth,  n. ,  Goth ;  adj. ,  goth. 
grain,  grain,  m. 
grandeur,  grandeur,  /. 
grandmother,  grand' mere,  /. 
grass,  herbe,  /. 
great,  adj.,  grand, 
green,  adj.,  vert. 
grove,  bosquet,  m. 
grow,    v.,    grandir ;     to  —  old, 

vieillir. 
guide,  v.,  guider. 


218 


VOCABULARY. 


Habitation,  habitation,  /. 
hair,  cheveu,  in. ,  cheveux,  plu. 
half,  adj.,  demi.     (Voir  page  13.) 
hand,  n. ,  main,  /. 
happiness,  bonheur,  m. 
happy,  adj. ,  heureux.   (Voir  page 

12.) 

hate,  v.,  hair,  irr. 
hatred,  haine,  /. ,  aversion,  /. 
haughty,  adj.,  fier. 
have,  v.,  avoir. 

he,  pro.,  il,  lui.     (Voir  page  19.) 
head,  n.,  tete,/. 
hear,  v.,  entendre, 
heart,  coaur,  m. 
heartily,  adv.,  de  bon  coaur. 
heave    (the    anchor),    v.,    lever. 

(Voir  page  49.) 
help,  v.,  assister. 
Henry,  Henri,  m. 
her,  son,  m.,  sa,  /.,  ses,  plu. 

(Voir  page  16.) 


heron,  heron,  m. 

hill,  c6te,  /. 

him,    le;     (indirect    object),  lui. 

(Voir  page  19.) 

himself,  pro. ,  lui-meme ;   se,  soi. 
history,  histoire,  /. 
home,  maison,  /. ,  chez  soi,  foyer, 

m. ;  demeure,/. ;  at  — ,  chez  soi, 

or  chez  moi,  chez  vous,  etc. 
honeysuckle,  chevrefeuille,  m. 
honor,  v. ,  honorer ;  estimer. 
hope,  v. ,  espe'rer.    (Voir  page  49.) 
hope,  n.,  espoir,  m. 
horizon,  horizon,  m. 
horse,  cheval,  m.,  chevaux,  plu. 
house,  maison,  /. 
how,  comment;   —  many,  com- 

bien  de. 

however,  adv.,  cependant. 
humane,  adj.,  humain. 
humor,  n.,  esprit,  m. 
hut,  cabane,  /. 


idea,  pense"e,  /.,  ide'e,  /. 
if,  conj.,  si. 

ignore,  v.,  me'connaitre,  irr. 
imagination,  imagination,  /. 
imitate,  v.,  imiter. 
imitation,  imitation,  /. 
immense,  adj.,  immense. 
immortalize,  v.,  immortaliser. 
import,  v.,  importer. 
important,   adj. ,    important ;    to 

be  of  importance,  of  moment, 

v.  imp.,  importer. 
impossible,  adj. ,  impossible  ;    it 

is  — ,  il  est  impossible. 


impression,  impression,  /. 
improvement,    amelioration,   /., 

progres,  m. 

improvise,  v.,  improviser. 
in,  prep. ,  en,  dans,  a. 
inclined,  adj.,  enclin. 
increase,  v.,  augmenter. 
indifferent,  adj.,  indifferent. 
indulgent,  adj.,  indulgent. 
industrious,     adj. ,     industrieux. 

(Voir  page  12.) 
inevitable,  adj.,  inevitable. 
infinite,  n.,  infini,  m. 
influence,  n. ,  influence,  /. 
inform  (to  announce),  v.,  annoncer. 


VOCABULARY. 


219 


inhabit,  v.,  habiter. 
inhabitant,  habitant,  m. 
injustice,  injustice,  /. 
inn,  auberge,  /. 
inspiration,  inspiration,  /. 
inspire,  v.,  inspirer. 
intellectual,  adj.,  intellectuel. 
intelligence,  intelligence,  /. 
interest,  v.,  interesser. 
interesting,  adj.,  interessant. 
interment,  enterrement,  in.]   se- 
pulture, /. 


Jacobin,  Jacobin,  m. 
journey,  voyage,  m. 
joy,  joie,  /. 
Jura,  Jura,  m. 
justice,  justice,  /. 


into,  prep. ,  dans,  en. 
intrepid,  adj.,  intrepide. 
introduce,  v.,  introduire,  irr.;  pr6- 

senter. 

invite,  v.,  inviter. 
irritate,  v.,  irriter. 
it,  pro.,  il,  elle,  ce ;  (object),  le, 

la.     (Voir  page  19.) 
Italian,  adj.,  italien,  n.,  Italien. 
Italy,  Italic,  /. 
its,  adj.,  son,  m.,  sa,  /.,  ses,  m., 


J,    K. 

Keep,  v.  garder. 

kind,  adj.,  bon.     (Voir  page  10.) 
king,  roi,  m. 
kiss,  v.,  embrasser. 
know,  v.,  savoir,  irr.,  connaitre, 
irr. 


Labor,  v.,  travailler. 

lady,   dame,  /.;    old  — ,   vieille 

dame. 
Lamartine.     (Yoir  le  vocabulaire 

fran^ais-anglais. ) 
lamp,  lampe/. 
land,  terre,  /. 
Landes,  Landes,  /.  plu. 
landscape,  paysage,  m. 
language,  langue,  /. 
large,  adj. ,  grand,  gros ;  e"teiidu  ; 

considerable,  fort. 
last,    n.,    fin,    /. ;     at    — ,    &    la 

fin,    enfin ;    — ,    adj.,    dernier, 


laugh,  v.,  rire,  irr. 

lead,     v.,     laisser  ;     se     laisser  ; 

mener. 
leap,  v.,  sauter. 


learn,  v.,  apprendre,  irr. 

least,   adv. ,    moins ;    at  — ,    an 

moms. 
leave,  v. ,  quitter  ;   laisser  ;  aban- 

dormer. 
Lescot.  (Voir  le  vocabulaire  f ran- 

5ais-anglais.) 
less,  adv.,  moins. 
lesson,  legon,  /. 
let,   v.,   laisser,   permettre,    irr.] 

soufTrir,  irr. 
letter,  lattre,  /. 
liberty,  liberte,  /. 
lie  (down),  v.,  se  coucher. 
life,  vie,  /. 
light,  v.,  allumer;   rallumer ;  to 

give  — ,  6clairer. 
like,  v. ,  aimer  ;  admirer,  vouloir, 

irr.;  — ,  adv.,  comme. 


220 


VOCABULARY. 


listen,  v.,  e"couter. 

little,  adj.,  petit;    —  one,  petit 

enfant ;  petit, 
live,  v.,  habiter;  (dwell),  demeu- 

rer ;  (exist),  vivre,  irr. ;   (to  live 

over  again),  re  vivre,  irr. 
living,  adj.,  vivant. 
Loire,  Loire,  /. 
London,  Londres,  m. 
long,  adj.,  long.     (Voir  page  10.) 

— ,  adv.,  fort;    (of  time),  long- 


temps;    how  — ,   combien   de 

temps. 

look,  v.,  regarder,  voir. 
lose,  v.,  perdre. 
loss,  n. ,  perte,  /. 
Louis,  Louis,  m. 
Louvre,  Louvre,  m. 
love,  n.,  amour,  m. ;  — ,  v.,  aimer, 
lovely,    adj.,    beau,    joli,    char- 

mant. 


M. 


Madness,  folie,  /. 
magnificent,  adj.,  magnifique. 
make,  v.,  faire,  irr. 
Malo  (St.).     (Voir  le  vocabulaire 

fran^ais-anglais. ) 
man,  homme,  m. 
manner,  maniere,  /. 
manners,  mceurs,  /. 
mansion,  maison,  /.,  maison  sei- 

gneuriale,  /. 
many,  adj. ,  beaucoup  de ;    bien 

des ;  du,  de  la,  des  ;  plusieurs ; 

maint ;  plus  d'un  ;  so  — ,  tant, 

tant  de. 

marauding,  n.,  maraudage,  m. 
march,  v.,  marcher. 
Margaret,  Marguerite,  /. 
marry,  v.,  e"pouser,  se  marier  avec. 
Mars,  Mars,  m. 
marshal,  n.,  marechal,  m. 
master,  maitre,  m. 
masterpiece,  chef-d'oeuvre,  m. 
Maupassant.      (Voir  le  vocabu- 
laire fran§ais-anglais.) 
me,  pro.,  me,  moi;    to  — ,  me, 

moi ;  for  — ,  me. 
meadow,  pre",  m. 
means  (sing.),  moyen,  m. 


Me*dicis  (Catherine  de).  (Voir  le 
vocabulaire  f ranQais-anglais. ) 

meditation,  meditation,  /. 

meet,  v. ,  rencontrer ;  to  —  to- 
gether, se  donner  rendez-vous. 

melodious,  adj.,  melodieux.  (Voir 
page  12.) 

melt,  v.,  fondre  ;  to  —  into  tears, 
se  fondre  en  larines. 

memory,  me"moire,  /. 

merit,  v.,  m  Writer. 

midst,  n.,  milieu,  m. 

midst,  adv.,  au  milieu,  parmi. 

mile,  mille,  m. ;  to  go  a  — ,  faire 
un  mille. 

mind,  n.,  esprit,  m.;  ame, /. 

minister,  n.,  ministre,  m. 

Mirabeau.  (Voir  le  vocabulaire 
frangais-anglais.) 

mirror,  n.,  miroir,  m. 

miserable,  adj.,  miserable;  mal- 
heureux.  (Voir  page  12.) 

misfortune,  malheur,  m. 

model,  n.,  modele,  m. 

Moliere.  (Voir  le  vocabulaire 
f  ran§ais-anglais. ) 

moment,  moment,  m. 

monarchy,  m  on  archie,  /. 


VOCABULARY. 


221 


monument,  monument,  m. 
more,  adv.,  plus  ;  no  — ,  ne  .  . 

plus. 

most,  adv. ,  le  plus,  tres,  fort, 
mother,  mere,  /. 
mountain,  montagne,  /. 
mourn,  v.,  pleurer. 
mouth,  bouche,  /. 
move,  v.,  toucher. 
movement,  mouvement,  m. 


much,  adv.,  beaucoup  de ;  beau- 
coup,  bien,  fort,  tres ;  as  — , 
autant  de;  how  — ,  combien, 
combien  de. 

munition,  munition,  /. 

murmur,  n.,  murmure,  m. 

music,  musique,  /. 

musician,  music icn,  m. 

my,  mon,  m.,  ma,  /.,  mes,  plu. 
(Voir  page  16.) 


N. 


Name,  nom,  m. 
nameless,  adj.,  innomme'. 
Napoleon.     (Voir  le  vocabulaire 

frangais-anglais.) 
nation,  nation,  /. 
nature,  nature,  /. 
near,  prep.,  pres  de. 
necessary,  adj.,  ne"cessaire ;  it  is 

— ,  il  faut.     (Voir  falloir,  irr.) 
neck,  cou,  m. 
need,  besoin,  m. ;  to  be  in  —  of, 

avoir  besoin  de. 
neighbor,  n.,  voisin,  m. 
nephew,  neveu,  m. 
nerve,  nerf,  m. 
never,  adv.,  ne  .  .  .  jamais. 


new,  adj.,  neuf,  nouveau,  nou- 

vel.     (Voir  pages  10,  12.) 
nimble,  adj.,  vif.    (Voir  page  12.) 
no,  adj.,  nul,  aucun. 
no,  adv.,  non. 
nobility,  noblesse,  /. 
noble,  adj.,  noble, 
northern,  adj.,  du  nord. 
not,  adv.,  ne  .  .  .  pas;  ne  .  .  . 

point. 

nothing,  adv.,  ne  .  .  .  rien. 
notice,  v.,  remarquer;  (to  look  at), 

regarder. 

number,  n.,  nombre,  m. 
numberless,     adj.,     nombreux. 

(Voir  page  12.) 


O. 


Oak,  chene,  m. 
obey,  v.,  obe'ir. 
object,  n.,  objet,  m.;  (gram.),  r£- 

gime. 
oblige,  v.,  obliger ;  to  be  obliged, 

falloir,  irr. 
observe,  v.,  observer;  remarquer; 

suivre,  irr. 

obstinate,  adj.,  opiniatre. 
obtain,  v.,  obtenir. 
ocean,  oce'an,  m. 


often,  adv.,  souvent. 

old,  adj.,  vieux.     (Voir  page  12.) 

on,  prep. ,  sur  ;  a ;  de  ;  en. 

once,  adv. ,  une  f ois  ;  autref ois. 

one,  adj.,  un. 

one,  pro.,  on;  celui,  m.,  celle, /., 

ceux,  m.  plu.,  celles,  /.  plu.; 

some  — ,  quelqu'un;  no  — ,  per- 

sonne  ;  every  — ,  chacun  ;  tout 

le  monde. 
only,  adv.,  seulement;  ne  .  .  .  que. 


222 


VOCABULARY. 


opened,  adj.,  £clos,  m.,  £close,  /. 

opinion,  opinion,  /. 

opportunity,  occasion,  /. 

oppress,  v.,  opprimer. 

or,  conj.,  ou. 

orator,  orateur,  m. 

order  (to  regulate),  v.,  regler;  (to 

command),  ordonner  ;  to  —  to 

be  brought,  se  faire  amener. 
order,  n.,  ordre,  m.  •  in  —  to,  pour, 

afin  de  ;  in  —  that,  pour  que, 

afin  que. 


other,  pro.,  autre,  autrui. 

ought,  v.,  devoir,  irr. 

outside,  adv. ,  hors  de. 

over,  adv.,  dessus;  (on  top),  par- 
dessus,  au-dessus;  (on  the  op- 
posite side),  au  dela ;  (ended), 
termini,  fini,  passe*. 

overcome,  v.  vaincre,  irr.  •  domp- 
ter;  subjuguer. 

overhang,  v.,  pencher. 

own,  adj.,  propre. 


Pain,  peine,  /.,  douleur,  /. ;  mal, 
in.;  —  of  death, peine  de  mort. 

painter,  peintre,  m. 

painting,  n.,  peinture,/. 

palace,  palais,  m. 

parent,  parent,  m. 

Paris,  Paris,  m. 

Parisian,  n.,  Parisien,  m. ;  adj., 
parisien,  m. 

part,  partie,  /. 

pass,  v. ,  passer  ;  —  over,  f  ran- 
chir;  —  over  or  by,  s'ecouler ; 
to  —  away  (to  die),  mourir,  irr. 

passion,  passion,  /. 

past,  n.,  passe',  m. 

patient,  adj.,  patient. 

patiently,  adv.  loc.,  sans  impa- 
tience. 

peace,  paix,  /. 

peaceable,  adj.,  paisible. 

peaceful,  adj.,  tranquille. 

peasant,  paysan,  m. 

peculiar,  adj.,  particulier. 

people,  gens,  m.  plu.;  (people, 
persons  in  general),  tout  le 
monde;  on,  pro.;  —  say,  on 
dit. 


perceive,  v.,  apercevoir,  s'aperce- 

voir. 
perfect,  v.,  perfectionner,  se  per- 

fectionner. 

perhaps,  adv.,  peut-etre. 
peril,  pe>il,  m. 
perilous,  adj.,   pe'rilleux.      (Voir 

page  12.) 

permit,  v.,  permettre,  irr. 
Persian,    n.,   Persan,    m.;    adj., 

persan,  m. 

picturesque,  adj.,  pittoresque. 
pillage,  pillage,  m. 
pilot,  n.,  pilote,  m. 
pine,  n.,  pin,  m. 
pitiful,  adj.,  lamentable. 
pity,  n.,  pitie,  /.,  dommage,  m. ; 

it  is  a  — ,  c'est  dommage. 
place,  n.,  place,  /.;  lieu,  m.;  to 

take  — ,  avoir  lieu, 
plain,  n.,  plaine, /. 
platform  (rostrum),  tribune,  /. 
pleasure,  plaisir,  m. 
plot,  n.,  complot,  m. 
poem,  poeme,  m. 
point  (boundary),  terme,  m. 
pond,  6tang,  m. 


VOCABULARY. 


223 


poor,  adj.,  pauvre  ;  indigent,  mal- 
heureux  ;  the  — ,  plu. ,  les  indi- 
gents,  les  malheureux. 

popularity,  popularity  /. 

portrait,  portrait,  ra. 

possess,  v.,  posse"der. 

power,  pouvoir,  m. 

pray,  v.,  prier. 

precept,  pre"cepte,  m. 

precious,  adj.,  pre'cieux.  (Voir 
page  12.) 

prefer,  v.,  pre'fe'rer. 

present,  v.,  presenter. 

preserve,  v.,  conserver. 

prevent,  v.,  empecher. 

privilege,  privilege,  m. 

procession,  cortege,  m. 


prodigal,  adj.,  prodigue. 
prodigious,  adj.,  prodigieux.  (Voir 

page  12.) 

produce,  v.,  produire,  irr. 
profit,  v.,  profiter. 
profoundly,  adv.,  profonde"ment, 

fortement. 

progress,  progres,  m. 
project,  projet,  m. 
province,  province,  /. 
prudent,  adj.,  prudent. 
public,  adj.,  public.     (Voir  page 

11.) 

punish,  v.,  punir. 
punishment,  peine,  /. 
pupil,  £leve ;  disciple. 
pure,  adj.,  pur. 


Q. 


Queen,  reine,  /. 
quickly,    adv. ,    vite  ; 
aussi  vite  que. 


as  —  as, 


quiet,  adj.,  tranquille. 
quite,  adv. ,  tout  &  fait ;  bien. 
quotation,  citation,  /. 


R. 


Rabelais.      (Voir  le  vocabulaire 

f  ran§ais-anglais. ) 
race,  n. ,  race,  /. 
race-course,  course,  /. 
railway,  chemin  de  fer,  m. 
rampart,  rempart,  m. 
rank,  n.,  rang,  m. 
rapidly,  adv.,  vite. 
rare,  adj.,  rare,  extraordinaire. 
rather,  adv.  plutot ;  mieux. 
read,  v.,  lire,  irr. 
ready,  adj.,  (prepared),  pr§t. 
real,  adj.,  vrai. 

really,  adv. ,  vraiment,  re'ellement. 
reason,  raison,  /. ;  to  be  right, 

avoir  raison ;  to  have  good  — , 

avoir  bien  raison, 


rebuild,  v.,  rebatir. 

recall,  v.,  rappeler  (voir  page  49), 

se  rappeler. 
receive,  v.,  recevoir. 
recent,  adj.,  re'cent,  nouveau. 
recognize,   v.,    reconnaitre,    irr. ; 

appr^cier. 

recompense,  v.  re'compenser. 
red,  adj.,  rouge. 

reddish  (ruddy),  adj.,  roussatre. 
refuge,  asile,  m. 
regain,  v.,  retrouver,  regagner. 
regard,  n.,  e*gard,  m. 
regard,  v.,  considerer. 
reign,  v.,  re'gner. 
reign,  n.,  regne,  m. 
reject,  v.,  rejeter.    (Voir  page  49.) 


224 


VOCABULARY. 


relay,  n. ,  £tape,  /. 
remain,  v.,  rester. 
remarkable,  adj. ,  singulier. 
remember,  v.,  se  souvenir,  irr. 
Renaissance,  Renaissance,  /. 
rent,  v.,  de'chirer. 
repeat,  v.,  renter, 
represent,  a.,  repre'senter. 
repress,  v.,  re'primer. 
republic,  n.,  re'publique, /. 
resist,  v.,  register. 
rest,   n.,  reste,  m.;   (£fte  others), 

les  autres. 
rest,  v.,  reposer. 
result,  n.,  re'sultat,  m. 
return  (£o  #o  back),  v.,  retourncr ; 

(to  come  back),  revenir,  irr. 
revenge,  v.,  venger ;  se  venger  dr. 
revolution,  revolution,  /. 


riches,  richesse,/.  sing.;  richesses, 

/.  plu. 

rider,  cavalier,  m. 
riding-hood,  chaperon,  ra. 
right,  n. ,  raison,  /. 
river,    riviere,   /.  ;    (river   which 

flows  into  the  sea),  fleuve,  m. 
road,  chemin,  m. ;  road-side,  bord 

de  la  route,  771. 
rob,  v.,  ddpouiller. 
rock,  rocher,  m. 
Roman,   n.,    Romain,    m. ;    adj., 

remain. 

rose,  n.,  rose,/. 
ruin,  mine,  /. 
ruin,  v.,  perdre. 
rule,  v. ,  regler  ;   dominer  ;   inai- 

triser. 
run,  v.,  courir,  irr. 


Sad,  adj.,  lugubre,  triste. 

sail,    v.,    faire    voile,    irr.;     to 

set  sail,  se  mettre  a  la  voile, 

irr. 

sailor,  matelot,  m. 
sally  (of  wit),  saillie, /. 
same,  adj.,  meme. 
sand,  sable,  m. 
satisfied,  adj.,  satisfait. 
say,  v.,  dire,  irr. 
scarcely,  adv. ,  a  peine ;  presque 

pas. 

scene,  scene,  /. 
school-boy,  e'colier,  m. 
scorn,  n.,  me'pris,  m. 
sculptor,  sculpteur,  m. 
sculpture,  n. ,  sculpture,  /. 
search,  v.,  chercher. 
season,  saison. 
seat,  v.,  asseoir,  irr. 


second,  adj.,  deuxieme ;  second. 

(Voir  page  15.) 
secret,  secret,  m. 
security,  se'curite',  /. 
see,  ».,  voir,  irr. 
seek,  v.,  chercher. 
seem,  v.,  sembler. 
Seine,  Seine,  /. 
seize,  v.,  saisir,  irr. 
selfish,  adj.,  e'goi'ste. 
sentiment,  sentiment,  m. 
separate,   v.,   se  quitter;   se  s6- 

parer. 

separation,  separation,  /. 
serious,  adj. ,  s^rieux.    (Voir  page 

12.) 

serve,  v.,  servir,  irr. 
service,  service,  m. 
set,  v.,  poser,  mettre,  irr.,  placer; 

(of  the  sun),  se  coucher  ;  —  to 


VOCABULARY. 


225 


work,  mettre  la  main  a  la 
truelle ;  —  at  naught,  mettre 
de  cote* ;  to  —  out,  se  mettre 
en  route. 

several,  adj.,  plusieurs. 

SeVigne"  (Madame  de).  (Voir  le 
vocabulaire  frangais-anglais.) 

share,  v.,  partager. 

she,  pro. ,  elle. 

sheep,  brebis,  /. 

short,  adj. ,  court ;  in  — ,  bref ,  en 
un  mot,  enfm. 

shoulder,  e'paule,  /. 

show,  v.,  montrer  ;  (to  manifest), 
te'moigner. 

silence,  silence,  m. 

silent,  adj. ,  silencieux ;  to  re- 
main — ,  garder  le  silence. 

sing,  v.,  chanter. 

sister,  soeur,  /. 

sit,  v.,  s'asseoir,  irr. 

skill,  habilete  ;  adresse. 

sky,  ciel,  m.,  cieux,  plu. 

sleep,  v.,  dormir. 

slender,  adj.,  elance*. 

slope,  n.,  pente,  /. ;  coteau,  m.; 
cote,  /. 

slow,  adj.,  lent. 

smile,  v.,  sourire,  irr. 

smiling,  adj.,  riant. 

snow,  n.,  neige, /. 

so,  adv. ,  ainsi ;  si ;  (in  sense  of 
it),  le. 

so,  cow/. ,  pourvu  que  ;  —  that, 
de  sorte  4ue ;  ainsi  que. 

social,  adj.,  social. 

society,  compagnie,  /. 

soft,  adj.,  moelleux.  (Voir  page 
12.) 

soldier,  soldat,  m. 

solitary,  adj.,  solitaire;  isole". 


solitude,  solitude,  /. 

some,  pro. ,  en  ;  quelques-uns,  m. 

plu.,  quelques-unes,  /.  plu. ;  les 

uns,  m.  plu. ,  les  unes,  /.  plu. 
some,  adj. ,  du,  m.  •    de  la,  /. ; 

de  P,  m.  f.  ;    des,  plu.,  m.  f. ; 

quelque. 

something,  quelque  chose,  m. 
sometimes,     adv.,     quelquefois; 

parf ois ;  tantqt. 

somewhere,  adv.,  quelque  part, 
son,  fils,  m. 
song,  chanson,  /. 
soon,  adv.,  bientot. 
sorrow,  n. ,  douleur,  /. 
sorry,  adj. ,  f  ache" ;   to  be  —  for 

any  one,  etre  fache  pour  quel- 

qu'un  ;  to  be  —  for  anything, 

etre  faclie"  de  quelque  chose, 
soul,  ame,  /. 
sound,  n.,  son,  m. 
south,  sud,  m. 
space,  espace,  m. 
speak,  v.,  parler. 
spectacles,  lunettes,  /.  plu. 
sphere,  sphere,  /. 
spirit,  entrain,  m. 
spirited,  adj.,  fougueux.      (Voir 

page  12.) 
spite,  n. ,  de"pit,  m. ;   in  —  of,  en 

d£pit  de,  malgre'. 
spring,  n.,  printemps,  m. 
squirrel,  e'cureuil,  m. 
stage,   diligence,   /.;    chaise    de 

poste,  /. 

stain,  v.,  souiller. 
star,  e'toile,  /. 
starry,  adj.,  e'toile'. 
state,  n.,  e"tat,  m. 
statue,  statue,  /. 
stay,  v.,  rester. 


226 


VOCABULARY. 


steal,  v.,  voler. 

stone,  pierre,  /. 

stop,  v.,  arreter,  s' arreter. 

story,  conte,  m.,  histoire,  /. 

strange,  adj.,  singulier;  curieux. 
(Yoir  page  12.) 

stranger,  Stranger,  m. 

street,  rue,  /. 

strength,  force,  /. 

strike,  v.,  f rapper. 

strong,  adj.,  fort. 

study,  n. ,  e"tude,  /. 

study,  v. ,  e"tudier ;  (to  study  close- 
ly), observer.  • 

style,  genre,  m. ;  fagon,  /. ,  mode, 
/. ;  in  the  Parisian  — ,  a  la 
parisienne. 

sublime,  adj.,  sublime. 

submit,  v.,  rle"chir. 


success,  succes,  m. 

such,  adj. ,  tel,  m. ;  —  a  one,  un 

tel,  m. ,  une  telle,  /. 
suddenly,  adv.  loc. ,  tout  a  coup, 
suffer,  v.,  souffrir,  irr. 
Sully.    (Voir  le  vocabulaire  fran- 

gais-anglais.) 
summer,  e"te",  m. 
summit,  sommet,  m. 
sun,  soleil,  m. 
superior,  adj.,  supe"rieur.     (Voir 

page  11.) 
sure,  adj.,  sur. 
surround,  v.,  entourer. 
sward,  gazon,  m. 
swarm  (of  ants),  fourmiliere, /. 
sweet,  adj.,  doux.      (Voir  page 

12.) 


Tagus,  Tage,  m. 

tailor,  tailleur,  m. 

take,  v.,  prendre. 

tale,  conte,  m. 

tall,  adj.,  grand,  haut. 

taste,  n.,  gout,  m. 

taste,  v.,  gouter. 

tear,  n.,  larme, /. 

tell,  v.,  dire,  irr. 

temptation,  tentation,  /. 

tenderness,  tendresse,  /. 

terrified,  adj.,  terrine". 

than,  conj. ,  que ;  more  —  a  hun- 
dred, plus  de  cent. 

thank,  v.,  remercier;  —  God! 
grace  a  Dieu  !  — s  to,  grace  a. 

that,  adj.,  ce,  cet,  m.,  cette,  /., 
ces,  plu.  m.  /.;  that,  conj.,  que. 

theater,  theatre,  m. 

their,  leur.     (Voir  page  16.) 


them,    pro.-,   (object  direct),   les; 

(object  indirect),  leur,  eux,  elles. 

(Voir  page  20.) 
then,  adv.,  alors. 
there,  adv. ,  la,  y  ;  —  he  is !  le 

voila  !   —  they  are  !   les  voila  ! 

—  is,  —  are,  il  y  a ;  from  — 
en. 

these,  pro.,  ceux-ci,  m.  plu., 
celles-ci.  (Voir  pages  26-28.) 

they, pro.,  ils,  elles  (voir  page  20), 
on  (page  34). 

thick,  adj. ,  epais.    (Voir  page  10.) 

thing,  chose,  /. 

think,  v.,  penser  (a);  to  —  of  (to 
have  an  opinion),  penser  de  ;  to 

—  (to  ponder),   songer;    to — 
(to  believe),  croire,  irr. 

this,  adj.,  ce,  cet,  m.,  cette,  /., 
ces,  plu.  m.  f. 


VOCABULARY. 


227 


those,    pro.,    ceux-la,    m.    plu., 

celles-la,  /.   plu.      (Voir  pages 

26-28.) 

thou,  pro. ,  tu,  toi.   (Voir  page  19. ) 
though,  conj. ,  quoique,  bien  que  ; 

cependant. 
thought,  pens^e,  /. 
thoughtful,  adj. ,  pensif ;  s^rieux. 

(Voir  page  12.) 
thoughtless,  adj.,  insouciant, 
through,    prep. ,    a    travers ;    au 

travers  de ;  dans, 
throw,  v.,  jeter. 
time,  temps,  m.  /.;    (repetition), 

fois,  /. 

to-day,  adv.,  aujourd'hui. 
together,  adv.,  ensemble. 
toilette,  toilette,  /. 
Toledo,  Tolede,  /. 
too,  adv.,  trop;  (also),  aussi;  de 

meme. 


touch,  v.,  toucher. 
Touraine,  Touraine,  /. 
tournament,  tournoi,  m. 
tower,  tour,  /.;   church  — ,  clo- 

cher,  m. 
town,  ville,  /. 
towns-people,  gens  de  province, 

m 

travel,  v.,  voyager. 
traverse,  v.,  traverser. 
tree,  arbre,  m. 
trembling,  adj.,  tremblant. 
trial,  essai,  m. 
trouble,  v.,  troubler. 
true,  adj.,  vrai. 
truth,  vMte",  /. 
try,  v.,  essay er. 
turn,  n. ,  tour,  m.;  (winding),  d£- 

tour,  m. 
two,  adj.,  deux. 


Uncertain,  adj.,  incertain. 
uncle,  oncle,  m. 
under,  prep. ,  sous. 
understand,     v.,      comprendre, 

irr. 

unexpected,  adj.,  inattendu. 
unhappy,  adj.,  malheureux.  (Voir 

page  12.) 

universe,  univers,  m. 
unjust,  adj.,  injuste. 


unless,  conj.,  a  moins  que  .  .  .  ne; 

a  moins  de ;  si  ce  n'est,  except^ 

que. 
unnoticed,  adv.  loc. ,  sans  le  comp- 

ter. 
until,    prep.,    jusque,     jusqu'a ; 

— ,  conj.,  jusqu'a  ce  que. 
upright,  adj.,  honnete. 
us,  pro.,  nous.     (Voir  page  20.) 
use,  n.,  usage. 


V. 


Vacation,  vacances,  /.  plu. 
valley,  vallon,  m.,  valle'e, /. 
value,  n.  valeur,  /. 
vanity,  vanite*,  /. 
vast,    adj. ,    vaste  ;    infini ; 
mense. 


vegetable,  legume,  m. 
verdant,  adj.,  verdoyant. 
veritable,  adj.,  veritable, 
very,  adv.,  tres,  bien,  fort, 
vessel,  vaisseau,  m. 
victory,  victoire,  /. 


228 


VOCABULARY. 


view,  n.,  vue, /.,  regard,  m. 
village,  village,  m. 
villager,  villageois,  m. 
vineyard,  vigne,  /. 
virtue,  vertu,  /. 


visible,  adj.,  visible, 
visit,  v.,  visiter. 
voice,  voix,  /. 

Voltaire.      (Voir   le  vocabulaire 
f  rang  ais-anglais. ) 


W. 


Wagon,  chariot,  m.  ;   wagon,  m. ; 

charrette,  /. 
waist,  ceinture,  /. 
wait,  v.,  attendre. 
walk,  n. ,  promenade,  /. 
walk,  v.,  marcher,  promener,  se 

prornener. 
wall,  mur,  m. 
want,  n. ,  besoin ;  to  be,  to  stand 

in  —  of,  avoir  besoin  de. 
want,  v.,  vouloir,    irr.,   de'sirer; 

(to  lack),  manquer. 
war,  guerre,  /. 
warlike,  adj.,  belliqueux.     (Voir 

page  12.) 

warn,  v. ,  avertir ;  pre'venir,  irr. 
waste,  adj.,  inculte. 
watch,  v.,  regarder. 
water,  v.,  arroser. 
waters,  n.,  flot,  m. 
way,  chemin,  m.  ;  route,  /. ;  on 

the  — ,  en  chemin,  en  route, 

chemin  faisant. 
we,  pro. ,  nous. 
weapon,  arme,  /. 
weary,  adj.,  ennuye',  fatigue",  las. 
weather,  n.,  temps,  m. 
week,  semaine,  /. 
well,    adv. ,    bien ;     tres ;     fort ; 

— !  loc.  inter j. ,  eh  bien ! 
what,  quel.     (Voir  page  17.) 
whatever,  pro. ,  quelque  .  .  .  qui ; 

quelque  .  .  .  que  ;   quoi  que  ce 

soit ;  — ,  adj.,  quelconque. 


whatsoever,  adj.,  quelque  .  .  . 
que. 

when,  conj.,  quand,  lorsque. 

where,  pro. ,  ou ;  — ,  adv. ,  oh. 

whether,  conj.,  si,  que. 

which,  rel.  pro.,  qui,  m.  f. ;  le- 
quel,  m.  sing. ,  laquelle,  /.  sing. ; 
lesquels,  m.  plu.,  lesquelles,  /. 
plu. ;  (object),  que;  that  —  (sub- 
ject), ce  qui;  that  —  (object), 
ce  que.  (Voir  pages  29-31.) 
— ,  inter,  pro.,  lequel,  m.,  la- 
quelle, /. ;  lesquels,  m.  plu., 
lesquelles,  /.  plu. 

whim,  fantaisie,  /. 

whimsical,  adj.,  capricieux  (voir 
page  12),  —  fancy,  verve,  /. 

white,  adj.,  blanc.   (Voir  page  11.) 

whiten,  v.,  blanchir. 

who,  rel.  pro.,  qui.  (Voir  pages 
29-31.) 

whole,  adj.,  tout,  m.,  toute,  /.,; 
tous,  m.  plu. ,  toutes,  /.  plu. 

whom,  rel.  pro.,  que  ;  (direct  and' 
indirect  object,  of  persons  only). 
qui;  (of  persons  and  things),, 
lequel,  m.  sing.,  laquelle,  /., 
sing.,  lesquels,  m.  plu.,  les- 
quelles, /.  plu.  (Voir  pages 
29-31.) 

whose,  pro. ,  dont,  de  qui,  m. ,  f., 
sing. ,  plu. ,  duquel,  m.  sing. ,  de 
laquelle,  /.  sing.,  desquels,  m. 
plu. ,  desquelles,  /.  plu. 


VOCABULARY. 


229 


why,  adv.,  pourquoi. 

wife,  femme,  /. ,  Spouse,  /. 

wild,  adj.,  sauvage. 

window,  fenetre,  /. 

wing,  n. ,  aile,  /. 

winter,  hiver,  m. 

wisdom,  sagesse,  /. 

wise,  adj. ,  sage  ;  —  man,  sage. 

wish,  v.y  de"sirer,  souliaiter,  vou- 

loir,  irr. 
wit,  esprit,  m. 

with,  prep. ,  avec,  de,  par,  a. 
without,  prep.,    sans;    hors  de ; 

— ,   conj. ,   a  moins   que  ;   sans 

que. 
wolf,  loup,  m. ,  louve,  /. 


woman,  femme,  /. 

wonderful,  adj. ,  merveilleux  (voir 

page  12),  rare, 
wood,  bois,  m. 
word,  mot,  m. ,  parole,  /. 
work,  n.,  oeuvre,  /.,  ouvrage,  m. 

travail,  m. 
work,  v.,  travailler. 
workman,  ouvrier,  m. 
world,  monde,  m. 
worn,  adj.,  use". 
worthy,  adj.,  digne. 
wound,  v.,  blesser. 
write,  n.,  e'er  ire,  irr. 
writer,  dcrivain,  m.  •  (of  a  letter), 

auteur,  m. 


Y. 


Year,  an,  m. ,  anne"e,  /. 
yellow,  adj.,  jaune. 
yet,  conj.,  pourtant,   cependant. 
yield,  v. ,  donner  ;   produire  ;  (to 

surrender),  livrer,  ceMer,  aban- 

donner, 
you,  pro.,  vous.   (Voir  tu,  page  19.) 


young,  adj.,  jeune. 

your,  adj. ,  ton,  m. ,  ta,  /. ,  tes,  plu. 

(Voir  page  16.) 
yourself,  pro. ,  vous-meme  ;  toi- 

meme. 
youth,  jeunesse,  /. 


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